Protection of women in armed conflict

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 22, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 148-166

  Gardam, Judith ^a   Charlesworth, Hilary ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE   (Australia)

^b AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GENDER ROLE; HUMAN RIGHTS; INTERNATIONAL LAW; VIOLENCE;

EID: 0034025176     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.2000.0007     Document Type: Article

References (182)

1. See Statement of Renée Cuisan, Member of the Int'i Comm. of the Red Cross, to the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, China, 4 Sept. 1995, available on 〈http:// www.icrc.org/icrceng.nsf/3c31e92a906daf86412561f60050d211/8a19d95f10b98fe 641256251002d8360? OpenDocument〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999); Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development, and Peace, Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.177/20 (1995), reprinted in REPORT OF THE FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN (1995) (recommended to the UN General Assembly by the Committee on the Status of Women on 7 Oct. 1995) [hereinafter Beijing Platform for Action ]. See also Report to the Secretary-General on Humanitarian Needs in Kuwait and Iraq in the Immediate Post-Crisis Environment by a Mission to the Area Led by Mr. Martti Ahtisaari, Under-Secretary-General for Administration and Management, Dated 20 March 1991, U.N. SCOR, U.N. Doc. S/22366 (1991); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, REPORT ON THE GULF WAR (1991); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, NEEDLESS DEATHS IN THE GULF WAR (1991), HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: PUBLIC HEALTH IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF WAR (1991); HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF CRISIS (1991) [hereinafter HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ].
2. See Statement of Renée Cuisan, Member of the Int'i Comm. of the Red Cross, to the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, China, 4 Sept. 1995, available on 〈http:// www.icrc.org/icrceng.nsf/3c31e92a906daf86412561f60050d211/8a19d95f10b98fe 641256251002d8360? OpenDocument〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999); Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development, and Peace, Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.177/20 (1995), reprinted in REPORT OF THE FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN (1995) (recommended to the UN General Assembly by the Committee on the Status of Women on 7 Oct. 1995) [hereinafter Beijing Platform for Action ]. See also Report to the Secretary-General on Humanitarian Needs in Kuwait and Iraq in the Immediate Post-Crisis Environment by a Mission to the Area Led by Mr. Martti Ahtisaari, Under-Secretary-General for Administration and Management, Dated 20 March 1991, U.N. SCOR, U.N. Doc. S/22366 (1991); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, REPORT ON THE GULF WAR (1991); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, NEEDLESS DEATHS IN THE GULF WAR (1991), HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: PUBLIC HEALTH IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF WAR (1991); HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF CRISIS (1991) [hereinafter HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ].
3. See Statement of Renée Cuisan, Member of the Int'i Comm. of the Red Cross, to the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, China, 4 Sept. 1995, available on 〈http:// www.icrc.org/icrceng.nsf/3c31e92a906daf86412561f60050d211/8a19d95f10b98fe 641256251002d8360? OpenDocument〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999); Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development, and Peace, Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.177/20 (1995), reprinted in REPORT OF THE FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN (1995) (recommended to the UN General Assembly by the Committee on the Status of Women on 7 Oct. 1995) [hereinafter Beijing Platform for Action ]. See also Report to the Secretary-General on Humanitarian Needs in Kuwait and Iraq in the Immediate Post-Crisis Environment by a Mission to the Area Led by Mr. Martti Ahtisaari, Under-Secretary-General for Administration and Management, Dated 20 March 1991, U.N. SCOR, U.N. Doc. S/22366 (1991); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, REPORT ON THE GULF WAR (1991); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, NEEDLESS DEATHS IN THE GULF WAR (1991), HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: PUBLIC HEALTH IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF WAR (1991); HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF CRISIS (1991) [hereinafter HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ].
4. See Statement of Renée Cuisan, Member of the Int'i Comm. of the Red Cross, to the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, China, 4 Sept. 1995, available on 〈http:// www.icrc.org/icrceng.nsf/3c31e92a906daf86412561f60050d211/8a19d95f10b98fe 641256251002d8360? OpenDocument〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999); Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development, and Peace, Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.177/20 (1995), reprinted in REPORT OF THE FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN (1995) (recommended to the UN General Assembly by the Committee on the Status of Women on 7 Oct. 1995) [hereinafter Beijing Platform for Action ]. See also Report to the Secretary-General on Humanitarian Needs in Kuwait and Iraq in the Immediate Post-Crisis Environment by a Mission to the Area Led by Mr. Martti Ahtisaari, Under-Secretary-General for Administration and Management, Dated 20 March 1991, U.N. SCOR, U.N. Doc. S/22366 (1991); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, REPORT ON THE GULF WAR (1991); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, NEEDLESS DEATHS IN THE GULF WAR (1991), HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: PUBLIC HEALTH IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF WAR (1991); HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF CRISIS (1991) [hereinafter HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ].
5. See Statement of Renée Cuisan, Member of the Int'i Comm. of the Red Cross, to the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, China, 4 Sept. 1995, available on 〈http:// www.icrc.org/icrceng.nsf/3c31e92a906daf86412561f60050d211/8a19d95f10b98fe 641256251002d8360? OpenDocument〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999); Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development, and Peace, Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.177/20 (1995), reprinted in REPORT OF THE FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN (1995) (recommended to the UN General Assembly by the Committee on the Status of Women on 7 Oct. 1995) [hereinafter Beijing Platform for Action ]. See also Report to the Secretary-General on Humanitarian Needs in Kuwait and Iraq in the Immediate Post-Crisis Environment by a Mission to the Area Led by Mr. Martti Ahtisaari, Under-Secretary-General for Administration and Management, Dated 20 March 1991, U.N. SCOR, U.N. Doc. S/22366 (1991); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, REPORT ON THE GULF WAR (1991); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, NEEDLESS DEATHS IN THE GULF WAR (1991), HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: PUBLIC HEALTH IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF WAR (1991); HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF CRISIS (1991) [hereinafter HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ].
6. See Statement of Renée Cuisan, Member of the Int'i Comm. of the Red Cross, to the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, China, 4 Sept. 1995, available on 〈http:// www.icrc.org/icrceng.nsf/3c31e92a906daf86412561f60050d211/8a19d95f10b98fe 641256251002d8360? OpenDocument〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999); Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development, and Peace, Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.177/20 (1995), reprinted in REPORT OF THE FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN (1995) (recommended to the UN General Assembly by the Committee on the Status of Women on 7 Oct. 1995) [hereinafter Beijing Platform for Action ]. See also Report to the Secretary-General on Humanitarian Needs in Kuwait and Iraq in the Immediate Post-Crisis Environment by a Mission to the Area Led by Mr. Martti Ahtisaari, Under-Secretary-General for Administration and Management, Dated 20 March 1991, U.N. SCOR, U.N. Doc. S/22366 (1991); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, REPORT ON THE GULF WAR (1991); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, NEEDLESS DEATHS IN THE GULF WAR (1991), HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: PUBLIC HEALTH IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF WAR (1991); HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF CRISIS (1991) [hereinafter HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ].
7. See Statement of Renée Cuisan, Member of the Int'i Comm. of the Red Cross, to the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, China, 4 Sept. 1995, available on 〈http:// www.icrc.org/icrceng.nsf/3c31e92a906daf86412561f60050d211/8a19d95f10b98fe 641256251002d8360? OpenDocument〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999); Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development, and Peace, Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.177/20 (1995), reprinted in REPORT OF THE FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN (1995) (recommended to the UN General Assembly by the Committee on the Status of Women on 7 Oct. 1995) [hereinafter Beijing Platform for Action ]. See also Report to the Secretary-General on Humanitarian Needs in Kuwait and Iraq in the Immediate Post-Crisis Environment by a Mission to the Area Led by Mr. Martti Ahtisaari, Under-Secretary-General for Administration and Management, Dated 20 March 1991, U.N. SCOR, U.N. Doc. S/22366 (1991); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, REPORT ON THE GULF WAR (1991); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, NEEDLESS DEATHS IN THE GULF WAR (1991), HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: PUBLIC HEALTH IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF WAR (1991); HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF CRISIS (1991) [hereinafter HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ].
8. See Statement of Renée Cuisan, Member of the Int'i Comm. of the Red Cross, to the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, China, 4 Sept. 1995, available on 〈http:// www.icrc.org/icrceng.nsf/3c31e92a906daf86412561f60050d211/8a19d95f10b98fe 641256251002d8360? OpenDocument〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999); Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development, and Peace, Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.177/20 (1995), reprinted in REPORT OF THE FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN (1995) (recommended to the UN General Assembly by the Committee on the Status of Women on 7 Oct. 1995) [hereinafter Beijing Platform for Action ]. See also Report to the Secretary-General on Humanitarian Needs in Kuwait and Iraq in the Immediate Post-Crisis Environment by a Mission to the Area Led by Mr. Martti Ahtisaari, Under-Secretary-General for Administration and Management, Dated 20 March 1991, U.N. SCOR, U.N. Doc. S/22366 (1991); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, REPORT ON THE GULF WAR (1991); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, NEEDLESS DEATHS IN THE GULF WAR (1991), HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: PUBLIC HEALTH IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF WAR (1991); HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF CRISIS (1991) [hereinafter HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ].
9. See Statement of Renée Cuisan, Member of the Int'i Comm. of the Red Cross, to the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, China, 4 Sept. 1995, available on 〈http:// www.icrc.org/icrceng.nsf/3c31e92a906daf86412561f60050d211/8a19d95f10b98fe 641256251002d8360? OpenDocument〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999); Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development, and Peace, Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.177/20 (1995), reprinted in REPORT OF THE FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN (1995) (recommended to the UN General Assembly by the Committee on the Status of Women on 7 Oct. 1995) [hereinafter Beijing Platform for Action ]. See also Report to the Secretary-General on Humanitarian Needs in Kuwait and Iraq in the Immediate Post-Crisis Environment by a Mission to the Area Led by Mr. Martti Ahtisaari, Under-Secretary-General for Administration and Management, Dated 20 March 1991, U.N. SCOR, U.N. Doc. S/22366 (1991); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, REPORT ON THE GULF WAR (1991); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, NEEDLESS DEATHS IN THE GULF WAR (1991), HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: PUBLIC HEALTH IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF WAR (1991); HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF CRISIS (1991) [hereinafter HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ].
10. See Statement of Renée Cuisan, Member of the Int'i Comm. of the Red Cross, to the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, China, 4 Sept. 1995, available on 〈http:// www.icrc.org/icrceng.nsf/3c31e92a906daf86412561f60050d211/8a19d95f10b98fe 641256251002d8360? OpenDocument〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999); Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development, and Peace, Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.177/20 (1995), reprinted in REPORT OF THE FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN (1995) (recommended to the UN General Assembly by the Committee on the Status of Women on 7 Oct. 1995) [hereinafter Beijing Platform for Action ]. See also Report to the Secretary-General on Humanitarian Needs in Kuwait and Iraq in the Immediate Post-Crisis Environment by a Mission to the Area Led by Mr. Martti Ahtisaari, Under-Secretary-General for Administration and Management, Dated 20 March 1991, U.N. SCOR, U.N. Doc. S/22366 (1991); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, REPORT ON THE GULF WAR (1991); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, NEEDLESS DEATHS IN THE GULF WAR (1991), HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: PUBLIC HEALTH IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF WAR (1991); HARVARD STUDY TEAM REPORT: HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ AFTER THE GULF CRISIS (1991) [hereinafter HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ].
11. See, e.g., Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences, Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamy, Submitted in Accordance with Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1997/44, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. RtS., 54th Sess., Agenda Item 9(a), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1998/54 (1998); Preliminary Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Systematic Rape, Sexual Slavery and Slavery-like Practices During Periods of Armed Conflict, Ms. Linda Chavez, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., Agenda Item 15, U.N. Doc.-E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/26 (1996). See also Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, U.N. GAOR, World Conf. on Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., 22d plen. mtg., part I, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.157/24 (1993), reprinted in 32 I.LM. 1661 (1993); Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, adopted 20 Dec. 1993, G.A. Res. 48/104, U.N. GAOR, 48th Sess., 85th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. A/RES/48/104 (1993), reprinted in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DISABLED PERSONS: ESSAYS AND RELEVANT HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS 416 (Theresia Degener & Yolan Koster-Dreese eds., 1995); Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶& 131, 136.
12. See, e.g., Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences, Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamy, Submitted in Accordance with Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1997/44, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. RtS., 54th Sess., Agenda Item 9(a), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1998/54 (1998); Preliminary Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Systematic Rape, Sexual Slavery and Slavery-like Practices During Periods of Armed Conflict, Ms. Linda Chavez, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., Agenda Item 15, U.N. Doc.-E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/26 (1996). See also Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, U.N. GAOR, World Conf. on Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., 22d plen. mtg., part I, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.157/24 (1993), reprinted in 32 I.LM. 1661 (1993); Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, adopted 20 Dec. 1993, G.A. Res. 48/104, U.N. GAOR, 48th Sess., 85th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. A/RES/48/104 (1993), reprinted in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DISABLED PERSONS: ESSAYS AND RELEVANT HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS 416 (Theresia Degener & Yolan Koster-Dreese eds., 1995); Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶& 131, 136.
13. See, e.g., Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences, Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamy, Submitted in Accordance with Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1997/44, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. RtS., 54th Sess., Agenda Item 9(a), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1998/54 (1998); Preliminary Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Systematic Rape, Sexual Slavery and Slavery-like Practices During Periods of Armed Conflict, Ms. Linda Chavez, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., Agenda Item 15, U.N. Doc.-E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/26 (1996). See also Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, U.N. GAOR, World Conf. on Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., 22d plen. mtg., part I, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.157/24 (1993), reprinted in 32 I.LM. 1661 (1993); Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, adopted 20 Dec. 1993, G.A. Res. 48/104, U.N. GAOR, 48th Sess., 85th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. A/RES/48/104 (1993), reprinted in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DISABLED PERSONS: ESSAYS AND RELEVANT HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS 416 (Theresia Degener & Yolan Koster-Dreese eds., 1995); Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶& 131, 136.
14. See, e.g., Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences, Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamy, Submitted in Accordance with Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1997/44, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. RtS., 54th Sess., Agenda Item 9(a), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1998/54 (1998); Preliminary Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Systematic Rape, Sexual Slavery and Slavery-like Practices During Periods of Armed Conflict, Ms. Linda Chavez, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., Agenda Item 15, U.N. Doc.-E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/26 (1996). See also Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, U.N. GAOR, World Conf. on Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., 22d plen. mtg., part I, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.157/24 (1993), reprinted in 32 I.LM. 1661 (1993); Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, adopted 20 Dec. 1993, G.A. Res. 48/104, U.N. GAOR, 48th Sess., 85th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. A/RES/48/104 (1993), reprinted in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DISABLED PERSONS: ESSAYS AND RELEVANT HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS 416 (Theresia Degener & Yolan Koster-Dreese eds., 1995); Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶& 131, 136.
15. See, e.g., Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences, Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamy, Submitted in Accordance with Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1997/44, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. RtS., 54th Sess., Agenda Item 9(a), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1998/54 (1998); Preliminary Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Systematic Rape, Sexual Slavery and Slavery-like Practices During Periods of Armed Conflict, Ms. Linda Chavez, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., Agenda Item 15, U.N. Doc.-E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/26 (1996). See also Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, U.N. GAOR, World Conf. on Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., 22d plen. mtg., part I, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.157/24 (1993), reprinted in 32 I.LM. 1661 (1993); Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, adopted 20 Dec. 1993, G.A. Res. 48/104, U.N. GAOR, 48th Sess., 85th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. A/RES/48/104 (1993), reprinted in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DISABLED PERSONS: ESSAYS AND RELEVANT HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS 416 (Theresia Degener & Yolan Koster-Dreese eds., 1995); Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶& 131, 136.
16. See, e.g., Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences, Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamy, Submitted in Accordance with Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1997/44, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. RtS., 54th Sess., Agenda Item 9(a), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1998/54 (1998); Preliminary Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Systematic Rape, Sexual Slavery and Slavery-like Practices During Periods of Armed Conflict, Ms. Linda Chavez, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., Agenda Item 15, U.N. Doc.-E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/26 (1996). See also Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, U.N. GAOR, World Conf. on Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., 22d plen. mtg., part I, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.157/24 (1993), reprinted in 32 I.LM. 1661 (1993); Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women, adopted 20 Dec. 1993, G.A. Res. 48/104, U.N. GAOR, 48th Sess., 85th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. A/RES/48/104 (1993), reprinted in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DISABLED PERSONS: ESSAYS AND RELEVANT HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS 416 (Theresia Degener & Yolan Koster-Dreese eds., 1995); Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶& 131, 136.
17. See, e.g., HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, UNTOLD TERROR: VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN PERU'S ARMED CONFLICT: A REPORT BY AMERICAS WATCH AND WOMEN'S RIGHTS PROJECT (1992); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA: RAPE AND SEXUAL ABUSE BY ARMED FORCES (1993); 2 HELSINKI WATCH, WAR CRIMES IN BOSNIA-HERCEGOVINA 18, 163-66 (1992); Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 (1992), U.N. SCOR, U.N. Doc. S/1994/674/Annex (1994) (considering the issue of rape and sexual assault at ¶¶ 58-60, 232-53); AFRICAN RIGHTS, RWANDA: DEATH, DESPAIR AND DEFIANCE, (rev. ed. 1995); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH WOMEN'S RIGHTS PROJECT, HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 100-38 (1995) (relating to sexual assault of refugees and displaced women); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, SHATTERED LIVES: SEXUAL VIOLENCE DURING THE RWANDAN GENOCIDE AND ITS AFTERMATH (1996) [hereinafter SHATTERED LIVES].
18. See, e.g., HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, UNTOLD TERROR: VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN PERU'S ARMED CONFLICT: A REPORT BY AMERICAS WATCH AND WOMEN'S RIGHTS PROJECT (1992); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA: RAPE AND SEXUAL ABUSE BY ARMED FORCES (1993); 2 HELSINKI WATCH, WAR CRIMES IN BOSNIA-HERCEGOVINA 18, 163-66 (1992); Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 (1992), U.N. SCOR, U.N. Doc. S/1994/674/Annex (1994) (considering the issue of rape and sexual assault at ¶¶ 58-60, 232-53); AFRICAN RIGHTS, RWANDA: DEATH, DESPAIR AND DEFIANCE, (rev. ed. 1995); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH WOMEN'S RIGHTS PROJECT, HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 100-38 (1995) (relating to sexual assault of refugees and displaced women); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, SHATTERED LIVES: SEXUAL VIOLENCE DURING THE RWANDAN GENOCIDE AND ITS AFTERMATH (1996) [hereinafter SHATTERED LIVES].
19. See, e.g., HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, UNTOLD TERROR: VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN PERU'S ARMED CONFLICT: A REPORT BY AMERICAS WATCH AND WOMEN'S RIGHTS PROJECT (1992); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA: RAPE AND SEXUAL ABUSE BY ARMED FORCES (1993); 2 HELSINKI WATCH, WAR CRIMES IN BOSNIA-HERCEGOVINA 18, 163-66 (1992); Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 (1992), U.N. SCOR, U.N. Doc. S/1994/674/Annex (1994) (considering the issue of rape and sexual assault at ¶¶ 58-60, 232-53); AFRICAN RIGHTS, RWANDA: DEATH, DESPAIR AND DEFIANCE, (rev. ed. 1995); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH WOMEN'S RIGHTS PROJECT, HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 100-38 (1995) (relating to sexual assault of refugees and displaced women); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, SHATTERED LIVES: SEXUAL VIOLENCE DURING THE RWANDAN GENOCIDE AND ITS AFTERMATH (1996) [hereinafter SHATTERED LIVES].
20. See, e.g., HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, UNTOLD TERROR: VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN PERU'S ARMED CONFLICT: A REPORT BY AMERICAS WATCH AND WOMEN'S RIGHTS PROJECT (1992); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA: RAPE AND SEXUAL ABUSE BY ARMED FORCES (1993); 2 HELSINKI WATCH, WAR CRIMES IN BOSNIA-HERCEGOVINA 18, 163-66 (1992); Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 (1992), U.N. SCOR, U.N. Doc. S/1994/674/Annex (1994) (considering the issue of rape and sexual assault at ¶¶ 58-60, 232-53); AFRICAN RIGHTS, RWANDA: DEATH, DESPAIR AND DEFIANCE, (rev. ed. 1995); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH WOMEN'S RIGHTS PROJECT, HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 100-38 (1995) (relating to sexual assault of refugees and displaced women); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, SHATTERED LIVES: SEXUAL VIOLENCE DURING THE RWANDAN GENOCIDE AND ITS AFTERMATH (1996) [hereinafter SHATTERED LIVES].
21. See, e.g., HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, UNTOLD TERROR: VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN PERU'S ARMED CONFLICT: A REPORT BY AMERICAS WATCH AND WOMEN'S RIGHTS PROJECT (1992); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA: RAPE AND SEXUAL ABUSE BY ARMED FORCES (1993); 2 HELSINKI WATCH, WAR CRIMES IN BOSNIA-HERCEGOVINA 18, 163-66 (1992); Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 (1992), U.N. SCOR, U.N. Doc. S/1994/674/Annex (1994) (considering the issue of rape and sexual assault at ¶¶ 58-60, 232-53); AFRICAN RIGHTS, RWANDA: DEATH, DESPAIR AND DEFIANCE, (rev. ed. 1995); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH WOMEN'S RIGHTS PROJECT, HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 100-38 (1995) (relating to sexual assault of refugees and displaced women); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, SHATTERED LIVES: SEXUAL VIOLENCE DURING THE RWANDAN GENOCIDE AND ITS AFTERMATH (1996) [hereinafter SHATTERED LIVES].
22. See, e.g., HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, UNTOLD TERROR: VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN PERU'S ARMED CONFLICT: A REPORT BY AMERICAS WATCH AND WOMEN'S RIGHTS PROJECT (1992); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA: RAPE AND SEXUAL ABUSE BY ARMED FORCES (1993); 2 HELSINKI WATCH, WAR CRIMES IN BOSNIA-HERCEGOVINA 18, 163-66 (1992); Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 (1992), U.N. SCOR, U.N. Doc. S/1994/674/Annex (1994) (considering the issue of rape and sexual assault at ¶¶ 58-60, 232-53); AFRICAN RIGHTS, RWANDA: DEATH, DESPAIR AND DEFIANCE, (rev. ed. 1995); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH WOMEN'S RIGHTS PROJECT, HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 100-38 (1995) (relating to sexual assault of refugees and displaced women); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, SHATTERED LIVES: SEXUAL VIOLENCE DURING THE RWANDAN GENOCIDE AND ITS AFTERMATH (1996) [hereinafter SHATTERED LIVES].
23. See, e.g., HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, UNTOLD TERROR: VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN PERU'S ARMED CONFLICT: A REPORT BY AMERICAS WATCH AND WOMEN'S RIGHTS PROJECT (1992); AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA: RAPE AND SEXUAL ABUSE BY ARMED FORCES (1993); 2 HELSINKI WATCH, WAR CRIMES IN BOSNIA-HERCEGOVINA 18, 163-66 (1992); Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 (1992), U.N. SCOR, U.N. Doc. S/1994/674/Annex (1994) (considering the issue of rape and sexual assault at ¶¶ 58-60, 232-53); AFRICAN RIGHTS, RWANDA: DEATH, DESPAIR AND DEFIANCE, (rev. ed. 1995); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH WOMEN'S RIGHTS PROJECT, HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 100-38 (1995) (relating to sexual assault of refugees and displaced women); HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, SHATTERED LIVES: SEXUAL VIOLENCE DURING THE RWANDAN GENOCIDE AND ITS AFTERMATH (1996) [hereinafter SHATTERED LIVES].
24. An exception to this focus on sexual violence is the work of ECOSOC, particularly in relation to Palestinian women and children in occupied territories. See, e.g., Situation of Women and Children in the Occupied Arab Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 22d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1982/18 (1982); Situation of Palestinians Within and Outside the Occupied Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 19th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1984/18 (1984); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/25 (1988); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/11 (1990); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 12th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1991/19 (1991); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 40th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1992/16 (1992); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 43d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1993/15 (1993); Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 51st plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1995/30 (1995). See also ECOSOC resolutions dealing with women and children in Namibia. E.g., Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/24 (1988); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1989/31 (1989); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/6 (1990). See also HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, THE HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 1-96 (1995).
25. An exception to this focus on sexual violence is the work of ECOSOC, particularly in relation to Palestinian women and children in occupied territories. See, e.g., Situation of Women and Children in the Occupied Arab Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 22d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1982/18 (1982); Situation of Palestinians Within and Outside the Occupied Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 19th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1984/18 (1984); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/25 (1988); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/11 (1990); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 12th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1991/19 (1991); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 40th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1992/16 (1992); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 43d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1993/15 (1993); Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 51st plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1995/30 (1995). See also ECOSOC resolutions dealing with women and children in Namibia. E.g., Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/24 (1988); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1989/31 (1989); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/6 (1990). See also HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, THE HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 1-96 (1995).
26. An exception to this focus on sexual violence is the work of ECOSOC, particularly in relation to Palestinian women and children in occupied territories. See, e.g., Situation of Women and Children in the Occupied Arab Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 22d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1982/18 (1982); Situation of Palestinians Within and Outside the Occupied Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 19th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1984/18 (1984); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/25 (1988); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/11 (1990); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 12th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1991/19 (1991); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 40th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1992/16 (1992); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 43d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1993/15 (1993); Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 51st plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1995/30 (1995). See also ECOSOC resolutions dealing with women and children in Namibia. E.g., Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/24 (1988); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1989/31 (1989); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/6 (1990). See also HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, THE HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 1-96 (1995).
27. An exception to this focus on sexual violence is the work of ECOSOC, particularly in relation to Palestinian women and children in occupied territories. See, e.g., Situation of Women and Children in the Occupied Arab Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 22d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1982/18 (1982); Situation of Palestinians Within and Outside the Occupied Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 19th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1984/18 (1984); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/25 (1988); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/11 (1990); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 12th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1991/19 (1991); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 40th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1992/16 (1992); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 43d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1993/15 (1993); Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 51st plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1995/30 (1995). See also ECOSOC resolutions dealing with women and children in Namibia. E.g., Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/24 (1988); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1989/31 (1989); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/6 (1990). See also HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, THE HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 1-96 (1995).
28. An exception to this focus on sexual violence is the work of ECOSOC, particularly in relation to Palestinian women and children in occupied territories. See, e.g., Situation of Women and Children in the Occupied Arab Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 22d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1982/18 (1982); Situation of Palestinians Within and Outside the Occupied Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 19th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1984/18 (1984); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/25 (1988); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/11 (1990); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 12th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1991/19 (1991); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 40th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1992/16 (1992); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 43d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1993/15 (1993); Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 51st plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1995/30 (1995). See also ECOSOC resolutions dealing with women and children in Namibia. E.g., Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/24 (1988); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1989/31 (1989); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/6 (1990). See also HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, THE HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 1-96 (1995).
29. An exception to this focus on sexual violence is the work of ECOSOC, particularly in relation to Palestinian women and children in occupied territories. See, e.g., Situation of Women and Children in the Occupied Arab Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 22d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1982/18 (1982); Situation of Palestinians Within and Outside the Occupied Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 19th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1984/18 (1984); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/25 (1988); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/11 (1990); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 12th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1991/19 (1991); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 40th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1992/16 (1992); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 43d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1993/15 (1993); Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 51st plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1995/30 (1995). See also ECOSOC resolutions dealing with women and children in Namibia. E.g., Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/24 (1988); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1989/31 (1989); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/6 (1990). See also HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, THE HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 1-96 (1995).
30. An exception to this focus on sexual violence is the work of ECOSOC, particularly in relation to Palestinian women and children in occupied territories. See, e.g., Situation of Women and Children in the Occupied Arab Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 22d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1982/18 (1982); Situation of Palestinians Within and Outside the Occupied Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 19th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1984/18 (1984); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/25 (1988); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/11 (1990); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 12th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1991/19 (1991); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 40th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1992/16 (1992); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 43d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1993/15 (1993); Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 51st plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1995/30 (1995). See also ECOSOC resolutions dealing with women and children in Namibia. E.g., Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/24 (1988); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1989/31 (1989); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/6 (1990). See also HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, THE HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 1-96 (1995).
31. An exception to this focus on sexual violence is the work of ECOSOC, particularly in relation to Palestinian women and children in occupied territories. See, e.g., Situation of Women and Children in the Occupied Arab Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 22d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1982/18 (1982); Situation of Palestinians Within and Outside the Occupied Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 19th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1984/18 (1984); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/25 (1988); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/11 (1990); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 12th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1991/19 (1991); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 40th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1992/16 (1992); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 43d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1993/15 (1993); Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 51st plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1995/30 (1995). See also ECOSOC resolutions dealing with women and children in Namibia. E.g., Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/24 (1988); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1989/31 (1989); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/6 (1990). See also HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, THE HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 1-96 (1995).
32. An exception to this focus on sexual violence is the work of ECOSOC, particularly in relation to Palestinian women and children in occupied territories. See, e.g., Situation of Women and Children in the Occupied Arab Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 22d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1982/18 (1982); Situation of Palestinians Within and Outside the Occupied Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 19th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1984/18 (1984); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/25 (1988); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/11 (1990); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 12th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1991/19 (1991); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 40th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1992/16 (1992); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 43d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1993/15 (1993); Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 51st plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1995/30 (1995). See also ECOSOC resolutions dealing with women and children in Namibia. E.g., Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/24 (1988); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1989/31 (1989); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/6 (1990). See also HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, THE HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 1-96 (1995).
33. An exception to this focus on sexual violence is the work of ECOSOC, particularly in relation to Palestinian women and children in occupied territories. See, e.g., Situation of Women and Children in the Occupied Arab Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 22d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1982/18 (1982); Situation of Palestinians Within and Outside the Occupied Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 19th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1984/18 (1984); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/25 (1988); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/11 (1990); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 12th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1991/19 (1991); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 40th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1992/16 (1992); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 43d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1993/15 (1993); Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 51st plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1995/30 (1995). See also ECOSOC resolutions dealing with women and children in Namibia. E.g., Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/24 (1988); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1989/31 (1989); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/6 (1990). See also HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, THE HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 1-96 (1995).
34. An exception to this focus on sexual violence is the work of ECOSOC, particularly in relation to Palestinian women and children in occupied territories. See, e.g., Situation of Women and Children in the Occupied Arab Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 22d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1982/18 (1982); Situation of Palestinians Within and Outside the Occupied Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 19th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1984/18 (1984); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/25 (1988); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/11 (1990); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 12th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1991/19 (1991); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 40th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1992/16 (1992); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 43d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1993/15 (1993); Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 51st plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1995/30 (1995). See also ECOSOC resolutions dealing with women and children in Namibia. E.g., Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/24 (1988); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1989/31 (1989); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/6 (1990). See also HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, THE HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 1-96 (1995).
35. An exception to this focus on sexual violence is the work of ECOSOC, particularly in relation to Palestinian women and children in occupied territories. See, e.g., Situation of Women and Children in the Occupied Arab Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 22d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1982/18 (1982); Situation of Palestinians Within and Outside the Occupied Territories, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 19th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1984/18 (1984); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/25 (1988); Situation of Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/11 (1990); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 12th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1991/19 (1991); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 40th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1992/16 (1992); Situation of and Assistance to Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 43d plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1993/15 (1993); Palestinian Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 51st plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1995/30 (1995). See also ECOSOC resolutions dealing with women and children in Namibia. E.g., Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1988/24 (1988); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 15th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1989/31 (1989); Women and Children in Namibia, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 13th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. E/RES/1990/6 (1990). See also HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, THE HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH GLOBAL REPORT ON WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS 1-96 (1995).
36. Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶ 44.
37. This process is particularly marked in the context of the work of the United Nations High Commission on Refugees (UNHCR) in relation to refugee women. See UNHCR, Policy on Refugee Women, in UNHCR GUIDELINES ON THE PROTECTION OF REFUGEE WOMEN (1991) [hereinafter UNHCR GUIDELINES];
38. UNHCR, SEXUAL VIOLENCE AGAINST REFUGEES: GUIDELINES ON PREVENTION AND RESPONSE (1995) [hereinafter SEXUAL VIOLENCE AGAINST REFUGEES].
39. See also Christine Chinkin, Feminist Interventions into International Law, 19 ADEL. L. REV. 13, 16 (1997).
40. See generally Julie Mertus & Pamela Goldberg, A Perspective on Women and International Human Rights after the Vienna Declaration: The Inside/Outside Construct, 26 N.Y.U.J. INT'L L. & POL. 201 (1994).
41. See Christine Chinkin, Rape and Sexual Abuse of Women in International Law Issues, 5 Eur. J. Int'l L. 326 (1994). Many other examples exist of the invisibility of women's experience of armed conflict. See Judith Gardam, Women and the Law of Armed Conflict: Why the Silence?, in 46 INT'L & COMP. L.Q. 55, 59-61 (1997).
42. See Christine Chinkin, Rape and Sexual Abuse of Women in International Law Issues, 5 Eur. J. Int'l L. 326 (1994). Many other examples exist of the invisibility of women's experience of armed conflict. See Judith Gardam, Women and the Law of Armed Conflict: Why the Silence?, in 46 INT'L & COMP. L.Q. 55, 59-61 (1997).
43. Interview with Dorothy Thomas, Human Rights Watch, New York (June 1996); Interview with Louise Doswald-Beck, ICRC, Geneva (June 1997); Interview with Ariane Brunet, Women's Rights Coordinator, Canada Programme, International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development, Montreal (Nov. 1997).
44. Interview with Marco Sassoli, formerly of the Division for Promotion of International Humanitarian Law, Delegate to Academic Circles, ICRC, Geneva (June 1997). See also Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶ 136.
45. The feminization of poverty was a key area of concern at the Beijing Conference. See Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶¶ 47-59. See also African Platform for Action adopted by the Fifth Regional Conference on Women, held at Dakar from 16 to 23 November 1994, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 39th Sess., ¶ 25, U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/1995/5/Add.2 (1994); Report of the Secretary-General, Second Review and Appraisal of the Implementation of the Nairobi Fonvard-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 39th Sess., Agenda Item 3(b), ¶ 92, U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/1995/3/Add.1 (1995).
46. The feminization of poverty was a key area of concern at the Beijing Conference. See Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶¶ 47-59. See also African Platform for Action adopted by the Fifth Regional Conference on Women, held at Dakar from 16 to 23 November 1994, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 39th Sess., ¶ 25, U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/1995/5/Add.2 (1994); Report of the Secretary-General, Second Review and Appraisal of the Implementation of the Nairobi Fonvard-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 39th Sess., Agenda Item 3(b), ¶ 92, U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/1995/3/Add.1 (1995).
47. The feminization of poverty was a key area of concern at the Beijing Conference. See Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶¶ 47-59. See also African Platform for Action adopted by the Fifth Regional Conference on Women, held at Dakar from 16 to 23 November 1994, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 39th Sess., ¶ 25, U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/1995/5/Add.2 (1994); Report of the Secretary-General, Second Review and Appraisal of the Implementation of the Nairobi Fonvard-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 39th Sess., Agenda Item 3(b), ¶ 92, U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/1995/3/Add.1 (1995).
48. See INT'L COMM. OF THE RED CROSS, WOMEN & WAR (1995), available on 〈http:// Www.icrc.org/icrceng.nsf/8ec4e051a8621595c12564670032d7ef/63fa9b7bbd8e677 e4125622d0033e0d9?OpenDocument〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999).
49. In the context of Palestinian women, see Hilary Charlesworth, International Human Rights Law: Prospects and Problems for Palestinian Women, in HUMAN RIGHTS: SELF-DETERMINATION AND POLITICAL CHANGE IN THE OCCUPIED PALESTINIAN TERRITORIES 79, 81-85 (Stephen Bowen ed., 1997).
50. See also Anonymous, Stop Press: Emergency Appeal, Women in Somalia, 3-4 CHANCING THE WORLD: A NEWS BULLETIN ON WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS AROUND THE WORLD AND CHANGE'S ACTIVITIES 8 (1992);
51. Tosca Looby, Women in Bougainville, 42 REFRACTORY GIRL 66, 66-67 (1992).
52. See Geneva Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the field, 12 Aug. 1949, 6 U.S.T. 3114, 75 U.N.T.S. 31 (entered into force 21 Oct. 1950) (entered into force for U.S. 2 Feb. 1956) [hereinafter Geneva I]; Geneva Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, 12 Aug. 1949, 6 U.S.T. 3217, 75 U.N.T.S. 85 (entered into force 21 Oct. 1950) (entered into force for U.S. 2 Feb. 1956) [hereinafter Geneva II]; Geneva Convention (III) Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, 12 Aug. 1949, 6 U.S.T. 3316, 75 U.N.T.S. 135 (entered into force 21 Oct. 1950) (entered into force for U.S. 2 Feb. 1956) [hereinafter Geneva III]; Geneva Convention (IV) Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, 12 Aug. 1948, 6 U.S.T. 3516, 75 U.N.T.S. 287 (entered into force 21 Oct. 1950) (entered into force for U.S. 2 Feb. 1956) [hereinafter Geneva IV]. Protocol (I) Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977, 1125 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force 7 Dec. 1978), reprinted in 16 I.LM. 1391 (1977) [hereinafter Protocol I]; Protocol (II) Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II), 8 June 1977, 1125 U.N.T.S. 609 (entered into force 7 Dec. 1978), reprinted in 16 I.L.M. 1442 (1977) [hereinafter Protocol II].
53. See Gardam, supra note 8, at 67-77.
54. See CAIL BRAYBON & PENNY SUMMERFIELD, OUT OF THE CAGE: WOMEN'S EXPERIENCES IN Two WORLD WARS (1987);
55. Sarah Fishman, Waiting for the Captive Sons of France: Prisoner of War Wives, 1940-1945, in BEHIND THE LINES 182 (Margaret Randolph Higonnet et al. eds., 1987);
56. Janna Thompson, Women and War, 14 WOMEN'S STUD. INT'L F. 63 (1991).
57. See Alexandra McLeod, Marking Time in Tuzla MANCHESTER GUARDIAN WKLY., 26 May 1996.
58. See Hibaaq I. Osman, Somalia: Will Reconstruction Threaten Women's Progress?, Ms. MAGAZINE, Mar./Apr. 1993, at 12; Report of the Expert of the Secretary-General, Ms. Graça Machel, Submitted Pursuant to General Assembly Resolution 48/157, U.N. GAOR, 51st Sess., ¶ 88, U.N. Doc. A/51/306 (1996) [hereinafter Machel]; Fishman, supra note 16, at 193; Penny Summerfield, Women in the Two World Wars, 23 HISTORIANS (1989).
59. See Hibaaq I. Osman, Somalia: Will Reconstruction Threaten Women's Progress?, Ms. MAGAZINE, Mar./Apr. 1993, at 12; Report of the Expert of the Secretary-General, Ms. Graça Machel, Submitted Pursuant to General Assembly Resolution 48/157, U.N. GAOR, 51st Sess., ¶ 88, U.N. Doc. A/51/306 (1996) [hereinafter Machel]; Fishman, supra note 16, at 193; Penny Summerfield, Women in the Two World Wars, 23 HISTORIANS (1989).
60. See Hibaaq I. Osman, Somalia: Will Reconstruction Threaten Women's Progress?, Ms. MAGAZINE, Mar./Apr. 1993, at 12; Report of the Expert of the Secretary-General, Ms. Graça Machel, Submitted Pursuant to General Assembly Resolution 48/157, U.N. GAOR, 51st Sess., ¶ 88, U.N. Doc. A/51/306 (1996) [hereinafter Machel]; Fishman, supra note 16, at 193; Penny Summerfield, Women in the Two World Wars, 23 HISTORIANS (1989).
61. See UNITED NATIONS, Women: Victims of Violence, Advocates of Peace, in WOMEN: CHALLENGES TO THE YEAR 2000, at 65, U.N. Sales No. E.91.1.21 (1991);
62. Francoise Krill, The Protection of Women in International Humanitarian Law, 249 INT'L REV. RED CROSS 337 (1985).
63. See Gender-based Persecution: Report of the Expert Group Meeting, U.N. GAOR, Division for the Advancement of Women, 1 52, U.N. Doc. EGM/GBP/1997/Report (1997), available on 〈gopher;//gopher.un.org:70/00/esc/cn6/1998/armedcon/GBP97.EN〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999) [hereinafter Report of the Expert Group Meeting]. See also CANADIAN CENTRE FOR FOREIGN POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT, OPTIONS: REPORT ON THE ROUNDTABLE ON GENDER AND PEACEBUILDING 36 (1997) (discussing the different needs of women with regard to demobilization).
64. See Gender-based Persecution: Report of the Expert Group Meeting, U.N. GAOR, Division for the Advancement of Women, 1 52, U.N. Doc. EGM/GBP/1997/Report (1997), available on 〈gopher;//gopher.un.org:70/00/esc/cn6/1998/armedcon/GBP97.EN〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999) [hereinafter Report of the Expert Group Meeting]. See also CANADIAN CENTRE FOR FOREIGN POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT, OPTIONS: REPORT ON THE ROUNDTABLE ON GENDER AND PEACEBUILDING 36 (1997) (discussing the different needs of women with regard to demobilization).
65. See Geneva III, supra note 14, arts. 14, 25, 29.
66. See Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences, Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamy, Submitted in Accordance with Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1995/85, Economic and Social Consequences, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 9(a), addendum 2, ¶ 1, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/53/Add. 2 (1996). See also Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶¶ 72-81, 152-66 (detailing the inadequacy of the education of women, not just during armed conflict).
67. See Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences, Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamy, Submitted in Accordance with Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1995/85, Economic and Social Consequences, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 9(a), addendum 2, ¶ 1, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/53/Add. 2 (1996). See also Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶¶ 72-81, 152-66 (detailing the inadequacy of the education of women, not just during armed conflict).
68. See JEANNE VICKERS, WOMEN AND WAR 25, 90 (1993).
69. See UNHCR GUIDELINES, supra note 6, at 7, 51-54.
70. See Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶ 136 (estimating that 80 percent of refugees are women). See also Carolyn Moorhead, Hostage to the Male Agenda, INDEX ON CENSORSHIP, July/Aug. 1995, at 68; Adam Jones, Gender and Ethnic Conflict in Ex-Yugoslavia, 17 ETHNIC & RACIAL STUD. 115, 119 (1994).
71. See Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶ 136 (estimating that 80 percent of refugees are women). See also Carolyn Moorhead, Hostage to the Male Agenda, INDEX ON CENSORSHIP, July/Aug. 1995, at 68; Adam Jones, Gender and Ethnic Conflict in Ex-Yugoslavia, 17 ETHNIC & RACIAL STUD. 115, 119 (1994).
72. See Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶ 136 (estimating that 80 percent of refugees are women). See also Carolyn Moorhead, Hostage to the Male Agenda, INDEX ON CENSORSHIP, July/Aug. 1995, at 68; Adam Jones, Gender and Ethnic Conflict in Ex-Yugoslavia, 17 ETHNIC & RACIAL STUD. 115, 119 (1994).
73. See Machel, supra note 18, ¶¶ 26, 62-64.
74. See UNHCR, THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S REFUGEES, ¶ 76 (1993) [hereinafter THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S REFUGEES];
75. SEXUAL VIOLENCE AGAINST REFUGEES, supra note 6;
76. Anonymous, Human Rights are Women's Rights, 25 AMNESTY INT'L REPORT, 1995, at 3-4.
77. See, e.g., SUSAN FORBES MARTIN, REFUGEE WOMEN 6-15 (1991). See also Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶ 137.
78. See, e.g., SUSAN FORBES MARTIN, REFUGEE WOMEN 6-15 (1991). See also Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶ 137.
79. See European Community Investigative Mission into the Treatment of Muslim Women In the Former Yugoslavia: Report to European Community Foreign Ministers, U.N. SCOR, Annex I, U.N. Doc. S/25240 (1993); FORBES MARTIN, supra note 28.
80. See Anonymous, Sisterhood is Global, 3 Ms. MAGAZINE, Sept./Oct. 1992, at 10;
81. Looby, supra note 13, at 67. See also Implementation of Article 21 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women: Report to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women on the Work of the World Health Organization in the Area of Women, Health and Development, U.N. GAOR, Comm. on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, Annex, ¶ 8, U.N. Doc. CEDAW/C/ 1996/3/Add.1 (1995), available on 〈gopher//gopher.un.org:70/00/ga/cedaw/15/ 1996-3a1.en〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999).
82. In 1995, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) reported that 38 percent of Kabul's residents surveyed in January of that year suffered from malnutrition. The figure was much higher amongst girls, because in Afghan culture boys are fed first, and girls frequently receive only leftovers. See UNHCR GUIDELINES, supra note 6, at 49.
83. See, e.g., Bela Bhatia et al., Unheard Voices: Iraqi Women on War and Sanctions, CHANGE INTERNATIONAL REPORTS: THINKBOOK VIII (1992). See also HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ, supra note 1 (detailing the impact of the Gulf conflict on women's everyday lives).
84. See, e.g., Bela Bhatia et al., Unheard Voices: Iraqi Women on War and Sanctions, CHANGE INTERNATIONAL REPORTS: THINKBOOK VIII (1992). See also HEALTH AND WELFARE IN IRAQ, supra note 1 (detailing the impact of the Gulf conflict on women's everyday lives).
85. See Machel, supra note 18, ¶¶ 127-30.
86. See Joan Fitzpatrick, The Use of International Human Rights Norms to Combat Violence Against Women, in HUMAN RIGHTS OF WOMEN: NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES 532 (Rebecca J. Cook ed., 1994); Fred Pelka, Voices from the War Zone, 55 THE HUMANIST, Mar./Apr. 1995, at 6-10.
87. See Joan Fitzpatrick, The Use of International Human Rights Norms to Combat Violence Against Women, in HUMAN RIGHTS OF WOMEN: NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES 532 (Rebecca J. Cook ed., 1994); Fred Pelka, Voices from the War Zone, 55 THE HUMANIST, Mar./Apr. 1995, at 6-10.
88. See UNHCR GUIDELINES, supra note 6, at 49.
89. See THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S REFUGEES, supra note 27, at 87 (detailing the vulnerability of households headed by women); Machel, supra note 18, ¶ 77.
90. See UNHCR GUIDELINES, supra note 6; Machel, supra note 18, ¶ 71 (recommending that women should be the initial point of control for food distribution systems undertaken by the World Food Program). See also HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, SHATTERED LIVES, supra note 3, at 25.
91. See UNHCR GUIDELINES, supra note 6; Machel, supra note 18, ¶ 71 (recommending that women should be the initial point of control for food distribution systems undertaken by the World Food Program). See also HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, SHATTERED LIVES, supra note 3, at 25.
92. See Anne Gallagher, Ending the Marginalization: Strategies for Incorporating Women into the United Nations Human Rights System, 19 HUM. RTS. Q. 283, 292 n.31 (1997).
93. See SHATTERED LIVES, supra note 3, at 25.
94. See UNHCR GUIDELINES, supra note 6, at 50.
95. For an account of rape in warfare over the centuries, see SUSAN BROWNMILLER, AGAINST OUR WILL: MEN, WOMEN AND RAPE 31-132 (1975).
96. See, e.g., UNHCR, DRAFT GUIDELINES ON EVALUATION AND CARE OF VICTIMS OF TRAUMA AND VIOLENCE (1993); Machel, supra note 18, ¶ 107. But see Ustinia Dolgopol, A Feminist Appraisal of the Dayton Peace Accords, 19 ADEL. L. REV. 59, 66-68 (1997) (criticizing the Dayton Peace Accords for the lack of support offered to victims of sexual violence in the Former Yugoslavia).
97. See, e.g., UNHCR, DRAFT GUIDELINES ON EVALUATION AND CARE OF VICTIMS OF TRAUMA AND VIOLENCE (1993); Machel, supra note 18, ¶ 107. But see Ustinia Dolgopol, A Feminist Appraisal of the Dayton Peace Accords, 19 ADEL. L. REV. 59, 66-68 (1997) (criticizing the Dayton Peace Accords for the lack of support offered to victims of sexual violence in the Former Yugoslavia).
98. For example, Palestinian women were excluded from the transitional process to self-rule. See, e.g., Palestinian Women's Organizations Struggle Against the Exclusion of Women from the Transitional Process, WOMEN'S WATCH, June 1996, at 3.
99. See Hilary Charlesworth, Transforming the United Men's Club: Feminist Futures for the United Nations, 4 TRANSNAT'L L. & CONTEMP. PROBS. 421 (1994).
100. It is estimated that women make up 50 percent of heads of households in Rwanda. See SHATIERED LIVES, supra note 3, at 2.
101. See Rebecca J. Cook, Elimination of Sexual Apartheid: Prospects for the Fourth World Conference on Women, ISSUE PAPERS ON WORLD CONFERENCES, No. 5, June 1995. See also Report of the Administrative Committee on Coordination: Social, Humanitarian and Human Rights Questions: Advancement of Women, U.N. ESCOR, Agenda Item 5(e), U.N. Doc. E/1996/16 (1996) (dealing with the advancement of women).
102. See Rebecca J. Cook, Elimination of Sexual Apartheid: Prospects for the Fourth World Conference on Women, ISSUE PAPERS ON WORLD CONFERENCES, No. 5, June 1995. See also Report of the Administrative Committee on Coordination: Social, Humanitarian and Human Rights Questions: Advancement of Women, U.N. ESCOR, Agenda Item 5(e), U.N. Doc. E/1996/16 (1996) (dealing with the advancement of women).
103. See Machel, supra note 18, ¶ 62; Stéphane Jeannet & Joël Mermet, The Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, 322 INT'L REV. RED CROSS 105 (1998).
104. See Machel, supra note 18, ¶¶ 67, 76, 89-107.
105. See Anonymous, supra note 13, at 8; Simona Sharoni, Every Woman is an Occupied Territory: the Politics of Militarism and Sexism and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, 1 J. GNDER STUD. 459 (1992).
106. See Cynthia Enloe, Afterword, Have the Bosnian Rapes Opened up a New Era of Feminist Consciousness?, in MASS RAPE: THE WAR AGAINST WOMEN IN BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA 219 (Alexandra Stiglmayer ed., 1994).
107. See Judith Gardam, Gender and Non-Combatant Immunity, 3 TRANSNAT'L. L. & CONTEMP. PROBS. 345, 348-49 (1993).
108. See SEXUAL VIOLENCE AGAINST REFUGEES, supra note 6, at 71.
109. See Anne Orford, The Politics of Collective Security, 17 MICH. J. INT'L L. 373, 377-79 (1995); Julianne Peck, The U.N. and the Laws of War: How Can the World's Peacekeepers Be Held Accountable?, 21 SYRACUSE J. INT'L L. & COM. 283, 283 (1995) (detailing allegations of rape by UN soldiers in Bosnia-Hercegovina).
110. See Anne Orford, The Politics of Collective Security, 17 MICH. J. INT'L L. 373, 377-79 (1995); Julianne Peck, The U.N. and the Laws of War: How Can the World's Peacekeepers Be Held Accountable?, 21 SYRACUSE J. INT'L L. & COM. 283, 283 (1995) (detailing allegations of rape by UN soldiers in Bosnia-Hercegovina).
111. See INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE OF THE RED CROSS, INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE FOR THE PROTECTION OF WAR VICTIMS: REPORT ON THE PROTECTION OF WAR VICTIMS, reprinted in 296 INT'L REV. RED CROSS 391, 428-29 (1993).
112. E.g., Kofi A. Annan, Secretary-General, Observance by United Nations Forces of International Humanitarian Law, SECRETARY-GENERAL'S BULL., 6 Aug. 1999, ¶ 1.1, U.N. Doc. ST/SGB/1999/13. Section 7 of the Bulletin includes protections for women against attacks, including rape and other forms of sexual violence. Id. ¶¶ 7.2-7.3.
113. The importance of compensation for women victims of armed conflict has been acknowledged on several occasions. See, e.g., Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶ 124(c), (d) & (h); Peace: Measures to Eradicate Violence Against Women in the Family and Society: Report by the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 38th Sess., Agenda Item 5(c), ¶ 72, U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/1994/4 (1994); Chavez, supra note 2, ¶¶ 74-79; Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Rwanda Submitted by Mr. René Degni-Sequi, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights, Under Paragraph 20 of Resolution S-3/1 of 25 May 1994, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 10, ¶ 141, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/68 (1996).
114. The importance of compensation for women victims of armed conflict has been acknowledged on several occasions. See, e.g., Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶ 124(c), (d) & (h); Peace: Measures to Eradicate Violence Against Women in the Family and Society: Report by the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 38th Sess., Agenda Item 5(c), ¶ 72, U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/1994/4 (1994); Chavez, supra note 2, ¶¶ 74-79; Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Rwanda Submitted by Mr. René Degni-Sequi, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights, Under Paragraph 20 of Resolution S-3/1 of 25 May 1994, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 10, ¶ 141, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/68 (1996).
115. The importance of compensation for women victims of armed conflict has been acknowledged on several occasions. See, e.g., Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶ 124(c), (d) & (h); Peace: Measures to Eradicate Violence Against Women in the Family and Society: Report by the Secretary-General, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on the Status of Women, 38th Sess., Agenda Item 5(c), ¶ 72, U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/1994/4 (1994); Chavez, supra note 2, ¶¶ 74-79; Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Rwanda Submitted by Mr. René Degni-Sequi, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights, Under Paragraph 20 of Resolution S-3/1 of 25 May 1994, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., Agenda Item 10, ¶ 141, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1996/68 (1996).
116. See Chinkin, supra note 8, at 326.
117. See Determination of Ceilings for Compensation for Mental Pain and Anguish (Decision No. 8), U.N. SCOR, U.N. Compensation Comm'n, Governing Council, 4th Sess., U.N. Doc. S/AC.26/1992/8 (1992), reprinted in UNITED NATIONS COMPENSATION COMMISSION 421 (Richard B. Lillich ed., 1995).
118. See Determination of Ceilings for Compensation for Mental Pain and Anguish (Decision No. 8), U.N. SCOR, U.N. Compensation Comm'n, Governing Council, 4th Sess., U.N. Doc. S/AC.26/1992/8 (1992), reprinted in UNITED NATIONS COMPENSATION COMMISSION 421 (Richard B. Lillich ed., 1995).
119. Id.
120. See Prosecutor v. Tadic, Decision on the Prosecutor's Motion Requesting Protective Measures For Victims and Witnesses, Int'l Crim. Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, U.N. Doc. IT-94-1 (1995), available on 〈http.;//www.un.org/icty/tadic/trialc2/decision-e/ 100895pm.htm〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999); Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, U.N. Diplomatic Conf. of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an Int'l Crim. Ct., arts. 43(6) & 57(3)(c), U.N. Doc A/CONF. 183/9 (1998), reprinted in 37 I.L.M. 999 (1998) [hereinafter Rome Statute]. See also Christine Chinkin, Due Process and Witness Anonymity, 91 AM. J. INT'L L. 75, 78-79 (1997); Patricia Viseur Sellers & Kaoru Okuizumi, Intentional Prosecution of Sexual Offences, 7 TRANSNAT'L L. & COMTEMP. PROBS. 47 (1997); NETHERLANDS MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS, CONFERENCE REPORT SUMMARY: REPORT OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF EXPERTS: 50 YEARS UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS: PREVENTING AND COMBATING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN 5, ¶ 14 (1998).
121. See Prosecutor v. Tadic, Decision on the Prosecutor's Motion Requesting Protective Measures For Victims and Witnesses, Int'l Crim. Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, U.N. Doc. IT-94-1 (1995), available on 〈http.;//www.un.org/icty/tadic/trialc2/decision-e/ 100895pm.htm〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999); Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, U.N. Diplomatic Conf. of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an Int'l Crim. Ct., arts. 43(6) & 57(3)(c), U.N. Doc A/CONF. 183/9 (1998), reprinted in 37 I.L.M. 999 (1998) [hereinafter Rome Statute]. See also Christine Chinkin, Due Process and Witness Anonymity, 91 AM. J. INT'L L. 75, 78-79 (1997); Patricia Viseur Sellers & Kaoru Okuizumi, Intentional Prosecution of Sexual Offences, 7 TRANSNAT'L L. & COMTEMP. PROBS. 47 (1997); NETHERLANDS MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS, CONFERENCE REPORT SUMMARY: REPORT OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF EXPERTS: 50 YEARS UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS: PREVENTING AND COMBATING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN 5, ¶ 14 (1998).
122. See Prosecutor v. Tadic, Decision on the Prosecutor's Motion Requesting Protective Measures For Victims and Witnesses, Int'l Crim. Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, U.N. Doc. IT-94-1 (1995), available on 〈http.;//www.un.org/icty/tadic/trialc2/decision-e/ 100895pm.htm〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999); Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, U.N. Diplomatic Conf. of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an Int'l Crim. Ct., arts. 43(6) & 57(3)(c), U.N. Doc A/CONF. 183/9 (1998), reprinted in 37 I.L.M. 999 (1998) [hereinafter Rome Statute]. See also Christine Chinkin, Due Process and Witness Anonymity, 91 AM. J. INT'L L. 75, 78-79 (1997); Patricia Viseur Sellers & Kaoru Okuizumi, Intentional Prosecution of Sexual Offences, 7 TRANSNAT'L L. & COMTEMP. PROBS. 47 (1997); NETHERLANDS MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS, CONFERENCE REPORT SUMMARY: REPORT OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF EXPERTS: 50 YEARS UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS: PREVENTING AND COMBATING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN 5, ¶ 14 (1998).
123. See Prosecutor v. Tadic, Decision on the Prosecutor's Motion Requesting Protective Measures For Victims and Witnesses, Int'l Crim. Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, U.N. Doc. IT-94-1 (1995), available on 〈http.;//www.un.org/icty/tadic/trialc2/decision-e/ 100895pm.htm〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999); Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, U.N. Diplomatic Conf. of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an Int'l Crim. Ct., arts. 43(6) & 57(3)(c), U.N. Doc A/CONF. 183/9 (1998), reprinted in 37 I.L.M. 999 (1998) [hereinafter Rome Statute]. See also Christine Chinkin, Due Process and Witness Anonymity, 91 AM. J. INT'L L. 75, 78-79 (1997); Patricia Viseur Sellers & Kaoru Okuizumi, Intentional Prosecution of Sexual Offences, 7 TRANSNAT'L L. & COMTEMP. PROBS. 47 (1997); NETHERLANDS MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS, CONFERENCE REPORT SUMMARY: REPORT OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF EXPERTS: 50 YEARS UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS: PREVENTING AND COMBATING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN 5, ¶ 14 (1998).
124. See Theodor Meron, The Yugoslav Tribunal: Use of Unnamed Witnesses Against Accused, 90 AM. J. INT'L L. 235 (1996).
125. Chinkin, supra note 6, at 78-79.
126. See Report of the Expert Group Meeting, supra note 20, ¶ 51; Rome Statute, supra note 60, art. 36(8)(a)(iii).
127. For a description of the system of IHL in relation to women, see Mala Tabory, The Status of Women in Humanitarian Law, in INTERNATIONAL LAW AT A TIME OF PERPLEXITY 941 (Yoram Dinstein ed., 1989); Krill, supra note 19.
128. Id.
129. See, e.g., Protocol I, supra note 14, arts. 70(1), 76(2). See also COMMENTARY ON THE ADDITIONAL PROTOCOLS OF 8 JUNE 1977 TO THE GENEVA CONVENTIONS OF 12 AUGUST 1949, 822, 893-95 (Yves Sandoz et al. eds., 1987); MICHAEL BOTHE ET AL., NEW RULES FOR VICTIMS OF ARMED CONFLICTS: COMMENTARY ON THE Two 1977 PROTOCOLS ADDITIONAL TO THE GENEVA CONVENTIONS OF 1949 470 (1982) (relating to Protocol I, art. 76(2)).
130. See, e.g., Protocol I, supra note 14, arts. 70(1), 76(2). See also COMMENTARY ON THE ADDITIONAL PROTOCOLS OF 8 JUNE 1977 TO THE GENEVA CONVENTIONS OF 12 AUGUST 1949, 822, 893-95 (Yves Sandoz et al. eds., 1987); MICHAEL BOTHE ET AL., NEW RULES FOR VICTIMS OF ARMED CONFLICTS: COMMENTARY ON THE Two 1977 PROTOCOLS ADDITIONAL TO THE GENEVA CONVENTIONS OF 1949 470 (1982) (relating to Protocol I, art. 76(2)).
131. See Geneva IV, supra note 14, art. 27(2) (stating that "[w]omen shall be especially protected against any attack of their honor, in particular against rape, enforced prostitution, or any form of indecent assault.")
132. See Geneva I, supra note 14, art. 12 (stating that "women shall be treated with all consideration due to their sex"). One commentator defines this article as the "consideration which is accorded in every civilized country to beings who are weaker than oneself and whose honor and modesty call for respect." INT'L COMM. OF THE RED CROSS, COMMENTARY: I GENEVA CONVENTION FOR THE AMELIORATION OF THE CONDITION OF THE WOUNDED AND SICK IN ARMED FORCES IN THE FIELD 140 (Jean S. Pictet ed., 1952) (eng. trans.).
133. See Judith G. Gardam, An Alien's Encounter With the Law of Armed Conflict, in SEXING THE SUBJECT OF LAW 233, 250 (Ngaire Naffine & Rosemary J. Owens eds., 1997).
134. See Gardam, supra note 8, at 57.
135. Id.
136. See, e.g., Advancement of Women and Implementation of the Outcome of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Statement by the ICRC to the General Assembly 3d Comm., 53d Sess., Agenda Items 103-04 (15 Oct. 1998), available on 〈http;//www .icrc.org/icrceng.nsf/c1256212004ce24e4125621200524882/d366866e92d 18001412566a4004eb94c?OpenDocument〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999).
137. Equality theory is still the preferred mode of liberal theorists for accommodating the demands of women for change. In the area of international law see, for example, Fernando R. Teson, Feminism and International Law: A Reply, 33 VA. J. INT'L L. 647 (1993).
138. See generally Krill, supra note 19.
139. See generally THE PROBLEM OF REFUGEES IN THE LIGHT OF CONTEMPORARY INTERNATIONAL LAW ISSUES (Vera Gowlland-Debbas ed., 1995).
140. See EDWARD K. KWAKWA, THE INTERNATIONAL LAW OF ARMED CONFLICT: PERSONAL AND MATERIAL FIELDS OF APPLICATION 18 (1992).
141. See, Protocol I, supra note 14, art. 51 (5)(b). See also Judith Gail Gardam, Proportionality and Force in International Law, 87 AM. J. INT'L L. 391, 406-10 (1993) (for a discussion of proportionality requirements in the law on the use of force).
142. For a discussion of the situation of refugee women, many of whom acquire this status as a result of armed conflict, see LUCY BONNERIEA, SHAMING THE WORLD: THE NEEDS OF WOMEN REFUGEES 5-6 (1995); Christiane Berthiaume, Do We Really Care?, 100 UNHCR REFUGEE WOMEN 11 (1995).
143. For a discussion of the situation of refugee women, many of whom acquire this status as a result of armed conflict, see LUCY BONNERIEA, SHAMING THE WORLD: THE NEEDS OF WOMEN REFUGEES 5-6 (1995); Christiane Berthiaume, Do We Really Care?, 100 UNHCR REFUGEE WOMEN 11 (1995).
144. See Gardam, supra note 77 (for a discussion of the relationship between proportionality in the law on the use of force and IHL).
145. See The Relationship between Economic Sanctions and Respect for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 8, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cult. Rts., 17th Sess., U.N. Doc. E/C.12/1997/8 (1997) (discussing transcending the boundaries of human rights law in the context of economic sanctions).
146. See Sebastian Bohr, Sanctions by the United Nations Security Council and the European Community, 4 EUR. J. INT'L L. 256 (1993); W. Michael Reisman & Douglas L. Stevick, The Applicability of International Law Standards to United Nations Economic Sanctions Programmes, 9 EUR. J. INT'L L. 86, 101-24 (1998).
147. See Sebastian Bohr, Sanctions by the United Nations Security Council and the European Community, 4 EUR. J. INT'L L. 256 (1993); W. Michael Reisman & Douglas L. Stevick, The Applicability of International Law Standards to United Nations Economic Sanctions Programmes, 9 EUR. J. INT'L L. 86, 101-24 (1998).
148. See generally VERA GOWLLAND-DEBBAS, COLLECTIVE RESPONSES TO ILLEGAL ACTS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW: UNITED NATIONS ACTION IN THE QUESTION Of SOUTHERN RHODESIA (1990); Lori Fisler Damrosch, The Civilian Impact of Economic Sanctions, in ENFORCING RESTRAINT: COLLECTIVE INTERVENTION IN INTERNAL CONFLICTS 274 (Lori Fisler Damrosch ed., 1993); Reisman & Stevick, supra note 81, at 96-124.
149. See generally VERA GOWLLAND-DEBBAS, COLLECTIVE RESPONSES TO ILLEGAL ACTS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW: UNITED NATIONS ACTION IN THE QUESTION Of SOUTHERN RHODESIA (1990); Lori Fisler Damrosch, The Civilian Impact of Economic Sanctions, in ENFORCING RESTRAINT: COLLECTIVE INTERVENTION IN INTERNAL CONFLICTS 274 (Lori Fisler Damrosch ed., 1993); Reisman & Stevick, supra note 81, at 96-124.
150. See Anonymous, supra note 30.
151. The general question of the compatibility of sanctions with the requirements of IHL, and in particular the prohibition against starvation as a method of warfare, indicates that the requirements of IHL are being breached in spirit if not in fact. For a discussion of the Security Council's practice in relation to sanctions and the requirements of IHL, see Hans Peter Casser, Collective Economic Sanctions and International Humanitarian Law: An Enforcement Measure under the United Nations Charter and the Right of Civilians to Immunity: an Unavoidable Clash of Policy Goals?, 56 ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR AUSLÄNDICHES ÖFFENTLICHES RECHT UND VÖLKERRECHT 871, 884-90 (1996). See also Reisman & Stevick, supra note 81 (discussing the application of the principles of necessity, proportionality, and discrimination to the imposition of economic sanctions by the United Nations). 85. See Protocol I, supra note 14, art. 54; Protocol II, supra note 14, art. 14. See also René Provost, Starvation as a Weapon: Legal Implications of the United Nations Food Blockade Against Iraq and Kuwait, 30 COLUM. J. TRANSNAT'L L. 577, 628-34 (1992).
152. The general question of the compatibility of sanctions with the requirements of IHL, and in particular the prohibition against starvation as a method of warfare, indicates that the requirements of IHL are being breached in spirit if not in fact. For a discussion of the Security Council's practice in relation to sanctions and the requirements of IHL, see Hans Peter Casser, Collective Economic Sanctions and International Humanitarian Law: An Enforcement Measure under the United Nations Charter and the Right of Civilians to Immunity: an Unavoidable Clash of Policy Goals?, 56 ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR AUSLÄNDICHES ÖFFENTLICHES RECHT UND VÖLKERRECHT 871, 884-90 (1996). See also Reisman & Stevick, supra note 81 (discussing the application of the principles of necessity, proportionality, and discrimination to the imposition of economic sanctions by the United Nations). 85. See Protocol I, supra note 14, art. 54; Protocol II, supra note 14, art. 14. See also René Provost, Starvation as a Weapon: Legal Implications of the United Nations Food Blockade Against Iraq and Kuwait, 30 COLUM. J. TRANSNAT'L L. 577, 628-34 (1992).
153. See Protocol I, supra note 14, art. 70.
154. See Geneva IV, supra note 14, arts. 23, 55.
155. See Universal Declaration on the Eradication of Hunger and Malnutrition, adopted 17 Dec. 1974, G.A. Res. 3348, U.N. GAOR, 29th Sess., U.N. Doc. E/Conf.65/20 (1974), reprinted in HUMAN RIGHTS; SIXTY MAJOR GLOBAL INSTRUMENTS (Winston E. Langley ed., 1992).
156. See U.N. CHARTER art. 41, signed 26 June 1945, 59 Stat. 1031, T.S. No. 993, 3 Bevans 1153 (entered into force 24 Oct. 1945).
157. See id. art. 103.
158. As things stand at the moment, the United Nations is not bound by the treaty rules of IHL. The extent to which it is bound by customary principles remains unresolved. Cf. Reisman & Stevick, supra note 81, at 95, 127. See also Theodor Meron, Prisoners of War, Civilians and Diplomats in the Gulf Crisis, 85 AM. J. INT'L L. 104 (1991) (expressing concern about the differences in standards between the requirements of the Fourth Geneva Convention and those put in place by Security Council Resolution 661 of 6 Aug. 1990).
159. The study by Graça Machel on the effect of armed conflict on children is a precedent. See Machel, supra note 18.
160. See, e.g., Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶ 132 (acknowledging that international humanitarian law is at times systematically ignored).
161. Chinkin, supra note 6, at 18.
162. See Judith Gail Gardam, A Feminist Analysis of Certain Aspects of International Humanitarian Law, 12 AUSTL. Y.B. INT'L L. 265 (1992).
163. See Coomaraswamy, supra note 2, ¶ 95.
164. See Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶¶ 222, 231. This process commenced with the demand expressed in the Vienna Declaration that "the equal status of women and the human rights of women . . . . be integrated into the mainstream of United Nations system-wide activity" and "form an integral part of United Nations human rights activities." See also Gallagher, supra note 38, at 292 n.31.
165. Id.
166. See Jane Connors, Mainstreaming Gender Within the International Framework (1996) (unpublished paper delivered to the Law and the Social Inclusion of Women Conference, University of Warwick) (on file with authors); Gallagher, supra note 38, at 292 n.31; Christine Ainetter Brautigam, Mainstreaming a Gender Perspective in the Work of the United Nations Human Rights Treaty Bodies, ASIL PROC., Apr. 1997, at 389-94.
167. See Jane Connors, Mainstreaming Gender Within the International Framework (1996) (unpublished paper delivered to the Law and the Social Inclusion of Women Conference, University of Warwick) (on file with authors); Gallagher, supra note 38, at 292 n.31; Christine Ainetter Brautigam, Mainstreaming a Gender Perspective in the Work of the United Nations Human Rights Treaty Bodies, ASIL PROC., Apr. 1997, at 389-94.
168. Geneva II, supra note 14, art. 12.
169. COMMENTARY ON GENEVA CONVENTION II FOR THE AMELIORATION OF THE CONDITION OF WOUNDED, SICK AND SHIPWRECKED MEMBERS OF ARMED FORCES AT SEA 92 (Jean S. Pictet ed., 1960).
170. An example is the interpretation of the phrases "wilfully causing great suffering or serious injury to body and health" and "torture and inhumane treatment," both of which currently constitute grave breaches of the Conventions.
171. See, e.g., Protocol I, supra note 14, art. 83.
172. For signs of progress in this area, see Annan, supra note 55.
173. See Beijing Platform for Action, supra note 1, ¶ 33.
174. Id. ¶ 135.
175. See generally CANADIAN CENTRE FOR FORIEGN POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT, supra note 20.
176. See id.
177. See UNHCR, Rebuilding a Future Together, UNHCR REFUGEE WOMEN (1997); UNHCR, IMPLEMENTING THE BEIJING PLATFORM FOR ACTION 17-19 (1998).
178. See UNHCR, Rebuilding a Future Together, UNHCR REFUGEE WOMEN (1997); UNHCR, IMPLEMENTING THE BEIJING PLATFORM FOR ACTION 17-19 (1998).
179. See Chinkin supra note 6, at 23.
180. Gallagher, supra note 38 at 288.
181. In Oct. 1999, the ICRC decided to develop and implement guidelines regarding the protection and assistance of women in conflict situations. See Update on ICRC's Initiative to Better Respond to the Needs and Resources of Women Affected by Armed Conflicts, 29 Oct. 1999, available on 〈http://www.icrc.org/icrceng.nsf/5cacfdf48ca 698b6412S6242003b3295/7d20b9263cab7582412568190042e673?OpenDocument〉 (visited 18 Nov. 1999).
182. Two examples of such challenges are the development of weapons of mass destruction and the vast increase in non-international conflicts.