Heart valve macro- and microstructure

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

Volumn 362, Issue 1484, 2007, Pages 1421-1436

  Misfeld, Martin ^a   Sievers, Hans Hinrich ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LÜBECK   (Germany)

Author keywords

Aortic; Histology; Mitral; Pulmonary; Tricuspid valve

Indexed keywords

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; ELECTRON MICROSCOPY; HISTOLOGY; MICROSTRUCTURE; MORPHOLOGY;

EID: 34547612620     PISSN: 09628436     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2007.2125     Document Type: Review

References (83)

1. Adamczyk, M. M., Lee, T. C. & Vesely, I. 2000 Biaxial strain properties of elastase-digested porcine aortic valves. J. Heart Valve Dis. 9, 445-453.
2. Aktas, E. O., Govsa, F., Kocak, A., Boydak, B. & Yavuc, I. C. 2004 Variations in the papillary muscle of normal tricuspid valves and their clinical relevance in medicolegal autopsies. Saudi Med. J. 25, 1176-1185.
3. Anderson, R. H. 2000 Clinical anatomy of the aortic root. Heart 84, 670-673. (doi:10.1136/heart.84.6.670)
4. Anderson, R. H. & Becker, A. E. 1982 Anatomy of the heart. Stuttgart, NY: Thieme.
5. Anderson, R. H., Devine, W. A., Ho, S. Y., Smith, A. & McKay, R. 1991 The myth of the aortic annulus: the anatomy of the subaortic outflow tract. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 52, 640-646.
6. Anderson, R. H., Lal, M. & Ho, S. Y. 1996 Anatomy of the aortic root with particular emphasis on options for its surgical enlargement. J. Heart Valve Dis. 5(Suppl. 3), S249-S257.
7. Asimakopoulos, G., Edwards, M. B. & Taylor, K. M. 1997 Aortic valve replacement in patients 80 years of age and older: survival and cause of death based on 1100 cases: collective results from the UK Heart Valve Registry. Circulation 96, 3403-3408.
8. Bairati, A. & DeBiasi, S. 1981 Presence of a smooth muscle system in aortic valve leaflets. Anat. Embryol. 161, 329-340. (doi:10.1007/BF00301830)
9. Bairati Jr, A., DeBiasi, S. & Pilotto, F. 1978 Smooth muscle cells in the cusps of the aortic valve of pigs. Experientia 34, 1636-1638. (doi:10.1007/BF02034723)
10. Bargmann, W. 1963 Bau des Herzens. Stuttgart, NY: Thieme.
11. Basset, A. L., Fenoglio Jr, J. J., Wit, A. L., Myerburg, R. G. & Gelband, H. 1976 Electrophysiologic and ultrastructural characteristics of the canine tricuspid valve. Am. J. Physiol. 230, 1366-1373.
12. Bellhouse, B. J. & Bellhouse, F. H. 1968 Mechanism of closure of the aortic valve. Nature 217, 86-87. (doi:10.1038/217086b0)
13. Bellhouse, B. J., Bellhouse, F. H. & Reid, K. G. 1968 Fluid mechanics of the aortic root with application to coronary flow. Nature 219, 1059-1061. (doi:10.1038/2191059a0)
14. Benninghoff, A., Hartmann, A. & Hellmann, T. 1930 Handbuch der mikroskopischen Anatomie des Menschen. Berlin, Germany: Springer.
15. Bezerra, A. J., DiDio, L. J. & Prates, J. C. 1992 Dimensions of the left atrioventricular valve and its components in normal human hearts. Cardioscience 3, 241-244.
16. Bozbuga, N. U., Sahinoglu, K., Ari, Z., Ozturk, A., Bayraktar, B., Isik, O. & Yakut, C. 1999 Importance of the mitral subvalvular apparatus for left ventricular functional anatomy. Okajimas Folia Anat. Jpn 75, 323-328.
17. Brewer, R. J., Deck, J. D., Capati, B. & Nolan, S. P. 1976 The dynamic aortic root. Its role in aortic valve function. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 72, 413-417.
18. Broom, N. D. 1978 The observation of collagen and elastin structures in wet whole mounts of pulmonary and aortic leaflets. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 75, 121-130.
19. Brown, R. A., Talas, G., Porter, R. A., McGrouther, D. A. & Eastwood, M. 1996 Balanced mechanical forces and microtubule contribution to fibroblast contraction. J. Cell. Physiol. 169, 439-447. (doi:10.1002/(SICI) 1097-4652(199612)169:3〈439::AID-JCP4〉3.0.CO;2-P)
20. Chen, L., Yin, F. C. & May-Newman, K. 2004 The structural and mechanical properties of the mitral valve leaflet-strut chordae transition zone. J. Biomech. Eng. 126, 244-251. (doi:10.1115/1.1695569)
21. Choo, S. J. et al. 1999 Aortic root geometry: pattern of differences between leaflets and sinuses of Valsalva. J. Heart Valve Dis. 8, 407-415.
22. Clark, R. E. & Finke, E. H. 1974a Scanning and light microscopy of human aortic leaflets in stressed and relaxed states. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 67, 792-804.
23. Clark, R. E. & Finke, E. H. 1974b The morphology of stressed and relaxed human aortic leaflets. Trans. Am. Soc. Artif. Intern. Organs 20, 437-448.
24. Connolly, H. M., Crary, J. L., McGoon, M. D., Hensrud, D. D., Edwards, B. S., Edwards, W. D. & Schaff, H. V. 1997 Valvular heart disease associated with fenfluramine-phentermine. N Engl. J. Med. 337, 581-588. (doi:10.1056/NEJM199708283370901)
25. Deck, J. D. 1986 Endothelial cell orientation on aortic valve leaflets. Cardiovasc. Res. 20, 760-767.
26. Dreger, S. A., Taylor, P. M., Chester, A. H. & Yacoub, M. H. 2003 Imrnunohistochemical characterization of the interleaflet triangle of the human aortic valve. J. Heart Valve Dis. (Abstract), 28.
27. Edwards, M. B. & Taylor, K. M. 1999 A profile of valve replacement surgery in the UK (1986-1997): a study from the UK Heart Valve Registry. J. Heart Valve Dis. 8, 687-701.
28. Edwards, M. B. & Taylor, K. M. 2003 Outcomes in nonagenarians after heart valve replacement operation. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 75, 830-834. (doi:10.1016/S0003-4975(02)04558-7)
29. Fastenrath, S. 1995 Fasertextur der Aorten- und Pulmonalklappe des Menschen. Kiel: thesis.
30. Fenoglio Jr, J. J., Pham, T. D., Wit, A. L., Basset, A. L. & Wagner, B. M. 1972 Canine mitral complex: ultrastructure and electromechanic properties. Circ. Res. 31, 417-430.
31. Filip, D. A., Radu, A. & Simionescu, M. 1986 Interstitial cells of the heart valves possess characteristics similar to smooth muscle cells. Circ. Res. 59, 310-320.
32. Furukawa, K., Ohteki, H., Cao, Z. L., Doi, K., Narita, Y., Minato, N. & Itoh, T. 1999 Does dilatation of the sinotubular junction cause aortic regurgitation? Ann. Thorac. Surg. 68, 949-953. (doi:10.1016/S0003-4975(99)00698-0)
33. Gross, T. 1961 Über den histologischen Aufbau der Herzklappen des Meerschweinchens. Path et. Microbiol. 24, 397-408.
34. Gross, L. & Kugel, M. 1931 Topographic anatomy and histology of the valves in the human heart. Am. J. Pathol. 7, 445-473.
35. Hibbs, R. G. & Ellison, J. P. 1973 The atrioventricular valves of the guinea-pig, II: an ultrastructural study. Am. J. Anat. 138, 347-369. (doi:10.1002/aja.1001380305)
36. Hokken, R. B., Bartelings, M. M., Bogers, A. J. & Gittenberger-DeGroot, A. C. 1997 Morphology of the pulmonary and aortic roots with regard to the pulmonary autograft procedure. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 113, 453-461. (doi:10.1016/S0022-5223(97)70357-X)
37. Icardo, J. M. & Colvee, E. 1995a Atrioventricular valves of the mouse: II. Light and transmission electron microscopy. Anat. Rec. 241, 391-400. (doi:10.1002/ar.1092410314)
38. Icardo, J. M. & Colvee, E. 1995b Atrioventricular valves of the mouse: III. Collagenous skeleton and myotendinous junction. Anat. Rec. 243, 367-375. (doi:10.1002/ar.1092430311)
39. Kawano, H., Shirai, T., Kawano, Y. & Okada, R. 1996 Morphological study of vagal innervation in human semilunar valves using a histochemical method. Jpn Circ. J. 60, 62-66. (doi:10.1253/jcj.60.62)
40. Klausner, S. C. & Schwartz, A. B. 1985 The aging heart. Clin. Geriatr. Med. 1, 114-119.
41. Kuhnel, W. 1966 Zur Feinstruktur der Herklappen. Zeitsch Rheumaforsch 25, 10-18.
42. Kunzelman, K. S., Cochran, R. P., Verrier, E. D. & Eberhart, R. C. 1994a Anatomic basis for mitral valve modelling. J. Heart Valve Dis. 3, 491-496.
43. Kunzelman, K. S., Grande, K. J., David, T. E., Cochran, R. P. & Verrier, E. D. 1994b Aortic root and valve relationships. Impact on surgical repair. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 107, 162-170.
44. Lai, M., Ho, S. Y. & Anderson, R. H. 1997 Is there such a thing as the "tendon of the infundibulum" in the heart? Clin. Anat. 10, 307-312. (doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2353(1997)10:5〈307::AID- CA3〉3.0.CO;2-N)
45. Liao, J. & Vesely, I. 2003 A structural basis for the size-related mechanical properties of mitral valve chordae tendinae. J. Biomech. 36, 1125-1133. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290(03)00109-X)
46. Lim, K. O. & Boughner, D. R. 1977 Scanning electron microscopical study of human mitral valve chordae tendinae. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 101, 236-238.
47. Lim, K. O., Boughner, D. R. & Perkins, D. G. 1983 Ultrastructure and mechanical properties of chordae tendinae from a myxomatous tricuspid valve. Jpn Heart J. 24, 539-548.
48. Matron, K., Yacoub, M. H., Polak, J. M., Sheppard, M. N., Fagan, D., Whitehead, B. F., deLeval, M. R., Anderson, R. H. & Wharton, J. 1996 Innervation of human atrioventricular and arterial valves. Circulation 94, 368-375.
49. McAlpine, W. A. 1975 Heart and coronary arteries. Berlin, Germany; New York, NY: Springer.
50. Messier Jr, R. H., Bass, B. L., Aly, H. M., Jones, J. L., Domkowski, P. W., Wallace, R. B. & Hopkins, R. A. 1994 Dual structural and functional phenotypes of the porcine aortic valve interstitial population: characteristics of the leaflet myofibroblast. J. Surg. Res. 57, 1-21. (doi:10.1006/jsre.1994.1102)
51. Millington-Sanders, C., Meir, A., Lawrence, L. & Stolinski, C. 1998 Structure of chordae tendinae in the left ventricle of the human heart. J. Anat. 192, 573-581. (doi:10.1046/j.1469-7580.1998.19240573.x)
52. Missirlis, Y. F. & Armeniades, C. D. 1977 Ultrastructure of the human aortic valve. Acta Anat. 98, 199-205.
53. Muriago, M., Sheppard, M. N., Ho, S. Y. & Anderson, R. H. 1997 Location of the coronary arterial orifices in the normal heart. Clin. Anat. 10, 297-302. (doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2353(1997)10:5〈297:: AID-CA1〉3.0.CO;2-O)
54. Ormiston, J. A., Shah, P. M., Tei, C. & Wong, M. 1981 Size and motion of the mitral valve annulus in man. I. A two-dimensional echocardiographic method and findings in normal subjects. Circulation 64, 113-120.
55. Otto, C. M., Lind, B. K., Kitzman, D. W., Gersh, B. J. & Siscovick, D. S. 1999 Association of aortic valve sclerosis with cardiovascular mortality and morbidity in the elderly. N. Engl. J. Med. 341, 142-147. (doi:10.1056/NEJM199907153410302)
56. Peskin, C. S. & McQueen, D. M. 1994 Mechanical equilibrium determines the fractal fiber architecture of aortic heart valve leaflets. Am. J. Physiol. 266, H319-H328.
57. Planz, K., 1961 Über die Verformung der Herzkammerbasis beim Menschen unter Funktion. Freiburg: thesis.
58. Puff, A. 1965 Funktionelle Anatomie des Herzklappenapparates. Verhandl. Dtsch. Ges. Kreislaufforschg. 31, 1-12.
59. Puff, A. & Kluemper, A. 1960 Über den Kontraktionsablauf in der linken Herzkammer. Zeitsch Kreislff 49, 500-510.
60. Ross, D. N. 1967 Replacement of aortic and mitral valves with a pulmonary autograft. Lancet 2, 956-958. (doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(67)90794-5)
61. Sahar, G., Abramov, D., Erez, E., Sagie, A., Barak, J., Raanani, E., Sulkes, J. & Vidne, B. A. 1999 Outcome and risk factors in octogenarians undergoing open-heart surgery. J. Heart Valve Dis. 8, 162-166.
62. Salgo, I. S., Gorman III, J. H., Gorman, R. C., Jackson, B. M., Bowen, F. W., Plappert, T., St John Sutton, M. G. & Edmunds Jr, L. H. 2002 Effect of annular shape and leaflet curvature in reducing leaflet stress. Circulation 106, 711-717. (doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000025426.39426.83)
63. Sauren, A. A., Kuijpers, W., Van Steenhoven, A. A. & Veldpaus, F. E. 1980 Aortic valve histology and its relation with mechanics - preliminary report. J. Biomech. 13, 97-104. (doi:10.1016/0021-9290(80)90183-9)
64. Schneider, E. L. & Guralnik, J. M. 1990 The aging of America: impact on health care costs. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 263, 2335-2340. (doi:10.1001/jama.263.17.2335)
65. Scott, M. & Vesely, I. 1995 Aortic valve cusp microstructure: the role of elastin. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 60, S391-S394. (doi:10.1016/0003-4975(95)00263-K)
66. Scott, M. J. & Vesely, I. 1996 Morphology of porcine aortic valve cusp elastin. J. Heart Valve Dis. 5, 464-471.
67. Silver, M. A. & Roberts, W. C. 1985 Detailed anatomy of the normally functioning aortic valve in hearts of normal and increased weight. Am. J. Cardiol. 55, 454-461. (doi:10.1016/0002-9149(85)90393-5)
68. Sonnenblick, E. H., Napolitano, L. M., Daggett, W. M. & Cooper, T. 1967 An intrinsic neuromuscular basis for mitral valve motion in dog. Circ. Res. 21, 9-15.
69. Stamm, C., Anderson, R. H. & Ho, S. Y. 1998 Clinical anatomy of the normal pulmonary root compared with that in isolated pulmonary valve stenosis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 31, 1420-1425. (doi:10.1016/S0735-1097(98) 00089-8)
70. Stradins, P., Lacis, R., Ozolanta, I., Purina, B., Ose, V., Feldmane, L. & Kasyanov, V. 2004 Comparison of biomechanical and structural properties between human aortic and pulmonary valve. Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg. 26, 634-639. (doi:10.1016/j.ejcts.2004.05.043)
71. Thubrikar, M., Piepgrass, W. C., Bosher, L. P. & Nolan, S. P. 1980 The elastic modulus of canine aortic valve leaflets in vivo and in vitro. Circ. Res. 47, 792-800.
72. Tsakiris, A. G., Gordon, D. A., Padiyar, R. & Frechette, D. 1978 Relation of mitral valve opening and closure to left atrial and ventricular pressures in the intact dog. Am. J. Physiol. 234, H146-H151.
73. Underwood, M. J., El Khoury, G., Deronck, D., Glineur, D. & Dion, R. 2000 The aortic root: structure, function, and surgical reconstruction. Heart 83, 376-380. (doi:10.1136/heart.83.4.376)
74. Vesely, I. 1998 The role of elastin in aortic valve mechanics. J. Biomech. 31, 115-123. (doi:10.1016/S0021-9290(97)00122-X)
75. Vollebergh, F. E. & Becker, A. E. 1977 Minor congenital variations of cusp size in tricuspid aortic valves. Possible link with isolated aortic stenosis. Br. Heart J. 39, 1006-1011.
76. Weind, K. L., Ellis, C. G. & Boughner, D. R. 2000 The aortic valve blood supply. J. Heart Valve Dis. 9, 1-7.
77. Weind, K. L., Ellis, C. G. & Boughner, D. R. 2002 Aortic valve cusp vessel density: relationship with tissue thickness. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 123, 333-340. (doi:10.1067/mtc.2002.119696)
78. WHO Study Group 1988 Rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease. WHO technical report series, no. 764. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
79. Woollard, H. H. 1962 The innervation of the heart. J. Anat. 60, 345-373.
80. Yacoub, M. H. & Cohn, L. H. 2004 Novel approaches to cardiac valve repair. From structure to function: part I. Circulation 109, 942-950. (doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000115633.19829.5E)
81. Yacoub, M. H., Kilner, P. J., Birks, E. J. & Misfeld, M. 1999 The aortic outflow and root: a tale of dynamism and crosstalk. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 68, S37-S43. (doi:10.1016/S0003-4975(99)00745-6)
82. Zimmerman, J. 1969 The functional and surgical anatomy of the aortic valve. Isr. J. Med. Sci. 5, 862-866.
83. Zimmerman, J. & Bailey, C. P. 1962 The surgical significance of the fibrous skeleton of the heart. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 44, 701-712.