Perceived Discrimination as Worldview Threat or Worldview Confirmation: Implications for Self-Esteem

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Volumn 92, Issue 6, 2007, Pages 1068-1086

  Major, Brenda ^a   Kaiser, Cheryl R ^b   O'Brien, Laurie T ^c   McCoy, Shannon K ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^c TULANE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF MAINE   (United States)

Author keywords

discrimination; ideology; prejudice; status justification; stigma

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ARTICLE; ATTITUDE; ETHNOLOGY; FEMALE; HISPANIC; HUMAN; MALE; POLITICS; SELF CONCEPT; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; STATISTICS;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ATTITUDE; FEMALE; HISPANIC AMERICANS; HUMANS; MALE; POLITICS; PREJUDICE; SELF CONCEPT; STEREOTYPING;

EID: 34547408331     PISSN: 00223514     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1068     Document Type: Article

References (90)

1. Aiken L.S., and West S.G. Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions (1991), Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA
2. Allport G. The nature of prejudice (1979), Doubleday, New York Original work published 1954
3. Bargh J., Chen M., and Burrows L. Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71 (1996) 230-244
4. Betancourt H., and Weiner B. Attributions for achievement-related events, expectancy, and sentiments: A study of success and failure in Chile and the United States. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 13 (1982) 362-374
5. Bobo L., and Hutchings V.L. Perceptions of racial group competition: Extending Blumer's theory of group position to a multiracial social context. American Sociological Review 61 (1996) 951-972
6. Bowlby J. Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment (1969), Basic Books, New York
7. Bowles G., and Klein R.D. Theories of women's studies (1983), Routledge & Kegan Paul, Boston
8. Branscombe N.R., Schmitt M.T., and Harvey R.D. Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 77 (1999) 135-149
9. Cartwright D. Emotional dimensions of group life. In: Raymert M.L. (Ed). Feelings and emotions (1950), McGraw-Hill, New York 439-447
10. Crandall C.S. Prejudice against fat people: Ideology and self-interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66 (1994) 882-894
11. Crandall C.S., and Martinez R. Culture, ideology, and antifat attitudes. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 22 (1996) 1165-1176
12. Crocker J., Luhtanen R., Broadnax S., and Blaine B.E. Belief in U.S. government conspiracies against Blacks among Black and White college students: Powerlessness or system blame?. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 25 (1999) 941-953
13. Crocker J., and Major B. Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review 96 (1989) 608-630
14. Crocker J., Major B., and Steele C. Social stigma. In: Gilbert D., Fiske S.T., and Lindzey G. (Eds). Handbook of social psychology. 4th ed. (1998), McGraw-Hill, Boston 504-553
15. Crocker J., Voekl K., Testa M., and Major B. Social stigma: The affective consequences of attributional ambiguity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60 (1991) 218-228
16. Crosby F. The denial of personal discrimination. American Behavioral Scientist 27 (1984) 371-386
17. Crosby F., Clayton S., Alksnis O., and Hemker K. Cognitive biases in the perception of discrimination: The importance of format. Sex Roles 14 (1986) 637-646
18. Dalbert C. The justice motive as a personal resource: Dealing with challenges and critical life events (2001), Kluwer Academic, New York
19. Davey L.M., Bobocel D.R., Son Hing L.S., and Zanna M.P. Preference for the Merit Principle Scale: An individual difference measure of distributive justice preferences. Social Justice Research 12 (1999) 223-240
20. Davis C.G., Wortman C.B., Lehman D.R., and Silver R.C. Searching for meaning in loss: Are clinical assumptions correct?. Death Studies 24 (2000) 496-540
21. Dion K.L. Women's reactions to discrimination from members of the same or opposite sex. Journal of Research in Personality 9 (1975) 294-306
22. Dion K.L., and Earn B.M. The phenomenology of being a target of prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (1975) 944-950
23. Du Bois W.E.B. The souls of Black folk (2003), Modern Library, New York Original work published 1903
24. Epstein S. The self-concept revisited: Or a theory of a theory. American Psychology 28 (1973) 404-416
25. Erikson E.H. The problem of ego identity. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 4 (1956) 56-121
26. Feldman-Barrett L., and Swim J.K. Appraisals of prejudice and discrimination. In: Swim J.K., and Stangor C. (Eds). Prejudice: The target's perspective (1998), Academic Press, San Diego 12-37
27. Fiske S.T. Social beings: A core motives approach to social psychology (2004), Wiley, New York
28. Foster M.D., Sloto L., and Ruby R. Responding to discrimination as a function of meritocracy beliefs and personal experiences: Testing the model for shattered assumptions. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 9 (2006) 401-411
29. Foster M.D., and Tsarfati E.M. The effects of meritocracy beliefs on women's well-being after first-time gender discrimination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31 (2005) 1730-1738
30. Furnham A., and Proctor E. Belief in a just world: Review and critique of the individual difference literature. British Journal of Social Psychology 28 (1989) 365-384
31. Greenberg J., Solomon S., and Pyszczynski T. Terror management theory of self-esteem and cultural worldviews: Empirical assessments and conceptual refinements. In: Zanna M.P. (Ed). Advances in experimental social psychology 29 (1997), Academic Press, San Diego 61-139
32. Hafer C.L., and Begue L. Experimental research on just-world theory: Problems, developments, and future challenges. Psychological Bulletin 131 (2005) 128-167
33. Hafer C.L., and Olson J.M. Beliefs in a just world and reactions to personal deprivation. Journal of Personality 56 (1989) 799-823
34. Hart J., Shaver P.R., and Goldenberg J.L. Attachment, self-esteem, worldviews, and terror management: Evidence for a tripartite security system. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88 (2005) 999-1013
35. Heatherton T.F., and Polivy J. Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60 (1996) 895-910
36. Hogg M.A. Self-categorization and subjective uncertainty reduction: Cognitive and motivational facets of social identity and group membership. In: Forgas J.P., and Williams K.D. (Eds). The social mind: Cognitive and behavioral aspects of interpersonal behavior (2001), Cambridge University Press, New York 332-349
37. Janoff-Bulman R. Assumptive worlds and the stress of traumatic events: Applications of the schema construct. Social Cognition 7 (1989) 113-136
38. Janoff-Bulman R. Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma (1992), Free Press, New York
39. Jost J.T., and Banaji M.R. The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology 33 (1994) 1-27
40. Jost J.T., Burgess D., and Mosso C.O. Conflicts of legitimation among self group, and system: The integrative potential of system justification theory. In: Jost J.T., and Major B. (Eds). The psychology of legitimacy: Emerging perspectives on ideology, justice, and intergroup relationships (2001), Cambridge University Press, New York 363-388
41. Jost J.T., and Hunyady O. The psychology of system justification and the palliative function of ideology. In: Stroebe W., and Hewstone M. (Eds). European review of social psychology 13 (2002), Psychology Press, Hove, England 111-153
42. Kaiser C.R., Major B., and McCoy S.K. Expectations about the future and the emotional consequences of perceiving prejudice. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 30 (2004) 173-184
43. Kaiser C.R., Vick S.B., and Major B. A prospective investigation of the relationship between just world beliefs and the desire for revenge post-September 11, 2001. Psychological Science 15 (2004) 503-506
44. Kaiser C.R., Vick S.B., and Major B. Prejudice expectations moderate preconscious attention to cues that are threatening to social identity. Psychological Science 17 (2006) 332-338
45. Kardiner A., and Ovesey L. The mark of oppression: A psychosocial study of the American Negro (1951), Norton, New York
46. Katz I., and Hass R.G. Racial ambivalence and American value conflict: Correlational and priming studies of dual cognitive structures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55 (1988) 893-905
47. Kenny D.A., Kashy D.A., and Bolger N. Data analysis in social psychology. In: Gilbert D.T., Fiske S.T., and Lindzey G. (Eds). The handbook of social psychology 1 (1998), McGraw-Hill, New York 233-265
48. Kleugel J.R., and Smith E.R. Beliefs about inequality: Americans' view of what is and what ought to be (1986), Aldine de Gruyter, Hawthorne, NJ
49. Koltko-Rivera M.E. The psychology of worldviews. Review of General Psychology 8 (2004) 3-58
50. Lane R.E. Political ideology: Why the American common man believes what he does (1962), Free Press of Glencoe, Oxford, England
51. Langer E.J. The illusion of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (1975) 311-328
52. Lazarus R.S., and Folkman S. Stress, appraisal, and coping (1984), Springer, New York
53. Lerner M.J. The justice motive: Some hypotheses as to its origins and forms. Journal of Personality 45 (1977) 1-52
54. Lerner M.J. The belief in a just world: A fundamental delusion (1980), Plenum Press, New York
55. Lerner M.J., and Miller D.T. Just world research and the attribution process: Looking back and ahead. Psychological Bulletin 85 (1978) 1030-1051
56. Lerner M.J., and Simmons C.H. Observer's reaction to the "innocent victim": Compassion or rejection?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 4 (1966) 203-210
57. Levin S., Sidanius J., Rabinowitz J.L., and Federico C. Ethnic identity, legitimizing ideologies, and social status: A matter of ideological asymmetry. Political Psychology 19 (1998) 373-404
58. Lipkus I., Dalbert C., and Siegler I.C. The importance of distinguishing the belief in a just world for self versus for others: Implications for psychological well-being. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 22 (1996) 666-677
59. Luhtanen R., and Crocker J. A collective self-esteem scale: Self-evaluation of one's social identity. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 18 (1992) 302-318
60. Major B. From social inequality to personal entitlement: The role of social comparisons, legitimacy appraisals, and group membership. In: Zanna M.P. (Ed). Advances in experimental social psychology 26 (1994), Academic Press, New York 293-355
61. Major B., Gramzow R., McCoy S.K., Levin S., Schmader T., and Sidanius J. Perceiving personal discrimination: The role of group status and status legitimizing ideology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80 (2002) 782-796
62. Major B., Kaiser C., and McCoy S.K. It's not my fault: When and why attributions to prejudice protect self-esteem. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 29 (2003) 772-781
63. Major B., McCoy S.K., Kaiser C.R., and Quinton W.J. Prejudice and self-esteem: A transactional model. In: Stroebe W., and Hewstone M. (Eds). European review of social psychology 14 (2003), Psychology Press, Hove, England 77-104
64. Major B., and O'Brien L.T. The social psychology of stigma. Annual Review of Psychology 56 (2005) 393-421
65. Major B., Quinton W.J., and McCoy S.K. Antecedents and consequences of attributions to discrimination: Theoretical and empirical advances. In: Zanna M.P. (Ed). Advances in experimental social psychology 34 (2002), Academic Press, New York 251-330
66. Major B., Quinton W.J., and Schmader T. Attributions to discrimination and self-esteem: Impact of group identification and situational ambiguity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 39 (2003) 220-231
67. Major B., and Schmader T. Legitimacy and the construal of social disadvantage. In: Jost J., and Major B. (Eds). The psychology of legitimacy: Emerging perspectives on ideology, justice, and intergroup relationships (2001), Cambridge University Press, New York 176-204
68. McCoy S.K., and Major B. Group identification moderates emotional responses to perceived prejudice. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 29 (2003) 1005-1017
69. McCoy S.K., and Major B. Priming meritocracy and the psychological justification of inequality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 43 (2007) 341-351
70. O'Brien L., and Major B. System justifying beliefs and psychological well-being: The role of group status and identity. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 31 (2005) 1718-1729
71. O'Brien, L. T., & Major, B. N. (in press). The impact of group status and status-legitimizing beliefs on feelings of personal entitlement. In J. T. Jost, A. C. Kay, & H. Thorisdottir (Eds.), Social and psychological bases of ideology and system justification. New York: Oxford University Press
72. Plaut V.C., Markus H.R., and Lachman M.E. Place matters: Consensual features and regional variation in American well-being and self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002) 160-184
73. Pratto F., Sidanius J., Stallworth L.M., and Malle B. Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 (1994) 741-763
74. Quinn D.M., and Crocker J. When ideology hurts: Effects of belief in the Protestant ethic and feeling overweight on the psychological well-being of women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (1999) 402-414
75. Rosenberg M. Conceiving the self (1979), Basic Books, New York
76. Rosenberg M., and Simmons R.G. Black and White self-esteem: The urban school child (1972), American Sociological Association, Washington, DC
77. Rubin Z., and Peplau L.A. Who believes in a just world?. Journal of Social Issues 31 (1975) 65-89
78. Schmader T., Major B., Eccleston C.P., and McCoy S.K. Devaluing domains in response to threatening intergroup comparisons: Perceived legitimacy and the status value assymmetry. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80 (2001) 782-796
79. Schmitt M.T., Branscombe N.R., and Postmes T. Women's emotional responses to the pervasiveness of gender discrimination. European Journal of Social Psychology 33 (2003) 297-312
80. Sellers R.M., and Shelton J.N. The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84 (2003) 1079-1092
81. Sellers R.M., Smith M.A., Shelton J.N., Rowley S.A.J., and Chavous T.M. Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review 2 (1998) 18-39
82. Sidanius J., and Pratto F. The dynamics of social dominance and the inevitability of oppression. In: Sniderman P., and Tetlock P.E. (Eds). Prejudice, politics, and race in America today (1993), Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, CA
83. Sidanius J., and Pratto F. Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression (1999), Cambridge University Press, New York
84. Solomon S., Greenberg J., and Pyszczynski T. Terror management theory of social behavior: The psychological functions of self-esteem and cultural worldviews. In: Zanna M.P. (Ed). Advances in experimental social psychology 21 (1991), Academic Press, San Diego 91-159
85. Son Hing L.S., Bobocel D.R., and Zanna M.P. Mentocracy and opposition to affirmative action: Making concessions in the face of discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002) 493-509
86. Steele C.M. A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist 52 (1997) 613-629
87. Tajfel H., and Turner J.C. The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In: Worchel S., and Austin W.G. (Eds). The psychology of intergroup relations (1986), Nelson-Hall, Chicago 7-24
88. Taylor S.E. Adjustment to threatening events: A theory of cognitive adaptation. American Psychologist 38 (1983) 1161-1173
89. Taylor S.E., and Brown J.D. Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin 103 (1988) 193-210
90. Van den Bos K., and Lind E.A. Fairness and uncertainty management. In: Zanna M.P. (Ed). Advances in experimental social psychology 34 (2002), Academic Press, San Diego 1-60