Combating terrorism in Central Asia: Explaining differences in states' responses to terror

Terrorism and Political Violence

Volumn 19, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 369-393

  Omelicheva, Mariya Y ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS   (United States)

Author keywords

Central Asia; Counterterrorism; Terrorism

Indexed keywords

EID: 34547228120     PISSN: 09546553     EISSN: 15561836     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09546550701424075     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. Shireen T. Hunter, Islam in Russia: The Politics of Identity and Security (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2004), xvii;
2. Sally N. Cummings, "Introduction: Power and Change in Central Asia," in Sally N. Cummings, ed., Power and Change in Central Asia (Oxford, England: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2002).
3. Gary King, Robert O. Keohane, and Sidney Verba, Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994).
4. Glenn E. Curtis, ed., Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan: Country Studies (Library of Congress Federal Research Division, 1996).
5. Richard H. Solomon, "Foreword," in Martha B. Olcott, ed., Central Asia's New States: Independence, Foreign Policy, and Regional Security (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996), ix.
6. International Crisis Group, "Central Asia: Islam and the State," ICG Asia Report #59 (Osh/Brussels, 10 July 2003), 5;
7. Alexei V. Malashenko, "Islam Versus Communism: the Experience of Coexistence," in Dale F. Eickelman, ed., Russia's Muslim Frontiers: New Directions in Cross-Cultural Analysis (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1993), 68;
8. Vitaly V. Naumkin, "Militant Islam in Central Asia: The Case of the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan," Berkeley Program in Soviet and Post Soviet Studies Working Paper Series (Spring 2003). http:/repositories.cdlib.org/ iseees/bps/2003_06-naum (accessed 1 May 2006), 16.
9. U.S. Interest in the Central Asian Republics. Hearing before the Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific of the Committee on International Relations House of Representatives. 105th Congress, Second Session, 12 Feb. 1998. 48-119 CC. Available at http://commdocs.house.gov/committees/intlrel/hfa48119.000/ hfa48119_0.HTM.
10. Available from the Counter-Terrorism Committee. http:/www.un.org/Docs/sc/ committees/1373/reports.html.
11. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices are available from the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles.html.
12. The information on legislation is available from the Open Library (in Russian). http://lawlib.freenet.uz.laws/laws/html (accessed 1 Jul. 2005), and free Legal Database "LexInfoSys" (in Russian), http://www.cis-legal- reform.org/index.html (accessed 15 July 2005).
13. For the purpose of this paper I utilize RAND's definition of terrorism that is inclusive of the types of acts that the governments of Central Asian states consider as terrorist attacks. In short, terrorism is violence, or the threat of violence, committed with the purpose of the creation of an atmosphere of fear in order to coerce others into actions they would not otherwise undertake, or refrain from actions they desire to take. This violence or threat of violence is generally directed against civilian targets, but the motives of all terrorists are political (MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Database: Glossary. http://www.tkb.org/Glossary.jsp#T).
14. Taiji Miyaoka, "Terrorist Crisis Management in Japan: Historical Development and Changing Response (1979-1997)," Terrorism and Political Violence 10 (Summer 1998): 23-53;
15. Paul Wilkinson, "Terrorism: International Dimensions," in William Gutteridge, ed., The New Terrorism (London: Mansell, 1986).
16. Ronald D. Crelinsten, "Terrorism, Counter-Terrorism and Democracy: The Assessment of National Security Threats," Terrorism and Political Violence 1, no. 2 (1989): 242-270;
17. Ami Pedahzur and Magnus Ranstorp, "A Tertiary Model for Countering Terrorism in Liberal Democracies: The Case of Israel," Terrorism and Political Violence 13 (Summer 2001): 1-27.
18. The Uzbek authorities associate Islamic fundamentalism with Wahhabism. Wahhabism is a derogatory reference to the puritanical brand of Islam that rules Saudi Arabia. Despite the fact that the more radical believers of Islam in Central Asia were labeled Wahhabis, they have always denied any association with the Wahhabis of Saudi Arabia (Nancy Lubin and Barnett R. Rubin, Calming the Ferghana Valley: Development and Dialogue in the Heart of Central Asia (New York: The Century Foundation Press, 1999), 5). The Central Asian authorities tend to lump together Islamic fundamentalism and Islamism. For the purposes of this paper, I differentiate between the two. Islamism is used in reference to radical Islamic groups, mainly the Hizb ut-Tahrir or the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, which treat Islam as a political system governing every aspect of private, social, and political life in accordance with Islamic law and advocate the establishment of an Islamic state in Central Asia. Islamic fundamentalism refers to an Islam-based ideology that rejects secularization in Islam and Islamic countries and advocates the return to traditional, "pure" Islamic traditions, practices, and beliefs.
19. International Crisis Group (see note 5 above), 11.
20. Ibid. See also Zamira Eshanova, "Central Asia: Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan Differ in Approach to Hezb ut-Tahrir" (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 12 June 2002). http://www.rferl.org/nca/features/2002/07/ 12072002171856.asp (accessed 14 Apr. 2003).
21. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture E/CN.4/2003/68/Add.1 (27 Feb. 2003).
22. See, for example, Farangis Najibullah, "Central Asia: In Tajikistan and Elsewhere, Islamic Groups Still On the Fringe" (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 6 June 2003). http://www.rferl.org/nca/features/2003/06/ 06062003172224.asp (accessed 13 Mar. 2003).
23. Tajikistan: Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2004 (The Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, 28 Feb. 2005). http://www.state.gov/g/drl/ rls/hrrpt/2004/41712.htm (accessed 1 May 2006).
24. Human Rights Watch, World Report 2001. Tajikistan. http://www.hrw.org/ wr2k1/europe/tajikistan.html (accessed 5 May 2005).
25. Ibid. See also Amnesty International, Annual Report 2005. Tajikistan, http:/web.amnesty.org/report2005/tjk-summary-eng (accessed 5 May 2005).
26. Sally N. Cummings and Michael Ochs, "Turkmenistan: Saparmurat Niyazov's Inglorious Isolation," in Sally N. Cummings, ed., Power and Change in Central Asia (Oxford, England: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2002), 115.
27. Turkmenistan's report on counterterrorism policies S/2003/868 (9 Sep. 2003), submitted to the Co unter-Terrorism Committee pursuant to Paragraph 6 of Security Council resolution 1373 (2001).
28. Human Rights Watch, "Turkmenistan: Human Rights Update" (14 May 2004). http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/05/14/turkme8964.htm (accessed 4 Apr. 2005); Amnesty International, "Turkmenistan: Covering Events from January-December 2003" (2004). http://web.amnesty.org/report2004/tkm- summary-eng (accessed 10 Apr. 2005).
29. For an overview of amendments to religious legislation premised on the need to cope with the threat of religious extremism in Kazakhstan, see Igor Rotar, "Kazakhstan: Religious Freedom Survey, December 2005," Forum 18 News Service (Oslo, Norway: 8 Dec. 2005). http://www.forum18.org/ Archive.php?article_id = 701 (accessed 1 May 2006).
30. International Crisis Group (see note 5 above), 33.
31. Ibid.
32. Erkinbek Kasybekov, "Government and Nonprofit Sector Relations in the Kyrgyz Republic," in M. Holt Ruffin and Daniel C. Waugh, eds., Civil Society in Central Asia (Center for Civil Society International, Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1999), 71.
33. Zamira Eshanova (see note 15 above).
34. Gokalp Bayrmli, "Uzbekistan Bombing Allegations Raise Tensions With Turkey" (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 8 Jul. 1999). Internet, http://www.rferl.org/nca/features/1999/07/F.RU.990708132919.html (accessed 1 March 2003).
35. Gulnoza Saidazimova, "Kyrgyzstan: Hizb Ut-Tahrir Rallies in South, Urges Election Boycott" (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 9 Feb. 2005). http:/www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/02/2ff7fdef-dae8-4323-8f61- 346a404f3ee9.html (accessed 15 May 2006).
36. Kadyr Taktogulov, "Kyrgyz President Demands Tougher Action against Terrorism, Criticizes Corruption in Law Enforcement Agencies," Associated Press, 23 Oct. 2004.
37. See, for example, E. Feiner, "Torture and Terrorism: Painful Lessons from Israel," in K. Roth and M. Worden, eds., Torture: Does It Make Us Safe? Is It Ever OK? A Human Rights Perspective (New York: The New Press in Conjunction with Human Rights Watch, 2005), 28-44;
38. M. Freeman, Freedom or Security: The Consequences for Democracies Using Emergency Powers to Fight Terror (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003);
39. M. Sidel, More Secure Less Free? Antiterrorism Policy and Civil Liberties After September 11 (Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press 2004);
40. Alexander Yonah, ed., Combating Terrorism: Strategies of Ten Countries (Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press, 2002).
41. Peter J. Katzenstein, Robert O. Keohane, and Stephen D. Krasner, "International Organization and the Study of World Politics," International Organization 52 (1998): 645-686.
42. James Fearon and Alexander Wendt, "Rationalism v. Constructivism: A Skeptical View," in Walter Carlsnaes, Thomas Risse and Beth Simmons, eds., Handbook of International Relations (London: Sage, 2002), 54.
43. Constructivists are united in their criticism of rationalism but divided on a number of ontological and epistemological questions (e.g., constitutive vs. causal theory, explanatory vs. emancipatory cognitive interests, etc.). There are many debates that cut across ontological, methodological, and theoretical issues (e.g., an "agent-structure" debate that focuses on the question of the nature of reality and how it can be explained: looking at the actors, structures, or both) (Emanuel Adler, "Constructivism and International Relations," in W. Carlsnaes, T. Risse, and B. A. Simmons, eds., Handbook of International Relations (London: Sage, 2002), 104).
44. Jerrery T. Checkel, "The Constructivist Turn in International Relations Theory (a review essay)," World Politics 50 (1998): 324-348;
45. Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink, "Taking Stock: The Constructivist Research Program in International Relations and Comparative Politics," Annual Review of Political Science 4 (2001): 391-416.
46. Ted Hopf, "The Promise of Constructivism in International Relations Theory," International Security 23 (1998): 199.
47. Samuel J. Barkin, "Realist Constructivism," International Studies Review 5 (2003): 325-342; Fearon and Wendt (see note 34 above).
48. For further discussion see Barkin (see note 38 above);
49. Fearon and Wendt (see note 34 above), 53.
50. Stephen M. Walt, "International Relations: One World, Many Theories," Foreign Policy (1998): 2-44.
51. Ludmila Polonskaya and Alexei Malashenko, Islam in Central Asia (Reading, England: Ithaca Press, 1994), 32-33.
52. Solomon (see note 4 above), 31;
53. Ibid, (see note 41 above), 28-29.
54. Finnemore and Sikkink compare the cumulative effects of other states with "peer pressure" among countries and discuss three possible motivations - legitimation, conformity, and esteem - for responding to peer pressure (Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink, "International Norms Dynamics and Political Change," International Organisation 52 (August 1998): 887-917).
55. International Crisis Group (see note 5 above);
56. Naumkin (see note 5 above).
57. Reuel Hanks, "Civil Society and Identity in Uzbekistan: The Emergent Role of Islam," in M. Holt Ruffin and Daniel C. Waugh (see note 27 above), 161.
58. "The Role of Religion in Politics of Central Asian and Caucuses," Neweurasia, Blogging Central Asia and Caucuses. http://neweurasia.net/?p = 425 (accessed 19 Aug. 2006).
59. Annette Bohr, Uzbekistan: Politics and Foreign Policy (The Royal Institute of International Affairs, Russia and Eurasia Programme, 1998), 25.
60. Lubin and Rubin (see note 13 above), 101.
61. For example, Adolat was an informal Islamist group that grew strong in the Namangan province and other parts of the Ferghana Valley of Uzbekistan in the early 1990s. It challenged local authorities by acting as a sort of voluntary Muslim militia for the enforcement of basic Islamic values and the prevention of crime. Adolat militia also tried to extend its activities to the capital of Uzbekistan, Tashkent. When President Karimov visited Namangan in 1992, Islamists took an open stand for legalization of Adolat (Bohr (see note 47 above); Naumkin (see note 5 above), 22).
62. Rajiv Tiwari, "Uzbekistan: President Sees Islamic Fundamentalism as a Threat," Russian Press Digest, 6 March 1993.
63. Hizb ut-Tahrir al-Islami (The Party of Islamic Liberation) is a radical Islamic group with thousands of members in the Central Asian region. It advocates re-establishment of the historical Islamic Caliphate on the territory of Central Asia, mostly by means of propaganda (International Crisis Group, "Radical Islam in Central Asia: Responding to Hizb ut-Tahrir," ICG Asia Report #58 (Osh/Brussels, 2003)); Emmanuel Karagiannis, "Political Islam and Social Movement Theory; the Case of Hizb ut-Tahrir in Kyrgyzstan," Religion, State and Society 33 (June 2005): 137.
64. International Crisis Group (see note 5 above), 4; Human Rights Watch, '"Bullets Were Falling Like Rain': The Andijan Massacre, May 13, 2005," 17, no. 5(D), June 2005. http://hrw.org/reports/2005/uzbekistan0605/ (accessed 1 May 2005).
65. Rajiv Tiwari (see note 50 above).
66. Polonskaya and Malashenko (see note 41 above).
67. Merkushev Alexander, "Uzbek President Dismisses Crackdown on Opposition," The Associated Press, 4 March 1993.
68. Jane Boulden and Thomas G. Weiss, eds., Terrorism and the UN: Before and After September 11 (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2004).
69. Marianne van Leeuwen, ed., Confronting Terrorism: European Experiences, Threat Perceptions and Policies (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2004).
70. U.S. Report on Foreign Terrorist Organizations. Released by the Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, 5 Oct. 2001. http://www.state.gov/s/ct/ rls/rpt/fto/2001/5258.htm (accessed 20 Mar. 2003).
71. U.S. Department of State Fact Sheets, http://www.state/gov/p/eur/rls/fs (accessed 4 June 2005).
72. "Uzbekistan: The Key to Success in Central Asia?" Hearing before the Subcommittee on the Middle East and Central Asia of the Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives. 108th Congress, 2nd session, 15 June 2004. http://www.house.gov/international_relations
73. Vladimir Simonov, "Why is Uzbekistan losing interest in the West?" Eurasia Net, 2 Dec. 2005. http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/ insight/articles/pp092905.shtml (accessed 13 Jan. 2006).
74. The causal origins of the civil war that began in 1992 have been a subject of a lively debate among the scholars of Central Asia. See, for example, John Glenn, The Soviet Legacy in Central Asia (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999), 12-127;
75. Mehrdad Haghayeghi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995), 142-151.
76. Islamic militants who invaded Kyrgyzstan in 1999 and 2000 were accused of maintaining bases in northeastern Tajikistan, and former UTO combatants were accused of participating in the incursion (Human Rights Watch (see note 19 above); Naumkin (see note 5 above)).
77. Malashenko (see note 5 above), 70.
78. The Islamic Renaissance Party is also known as the Party of Islamic Rebirth and the Islamic Revival Party.
79. Russian source
80. Polonskaya and Malashenko (see note 41 above), 130.
81. Naumkin (see note 5 above), 27.
82. International Crisis Group (see note 5 above), 13-14.
83. International Crisis Group (see note 5 above), 14.
84. S. Poe, C. Tate, and L. Keith, "Repression of Human Rights to Personal Integrity Revised: A Global Cross-National Study Covering the Years 1976-1993," International Studies Quarterly 43 (1999): 295.
85. Human Rights Watch, "Human Rights Watch Press Backgrounder on Tajikistan," Human Rights Watch World Report 2001: Tajikistan, 5 Oct. 2001. http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/eca/tajikbkg1005.htm (accessed 15 Mar. 2003).
86. International Crisis Group (see note 51 above), 35.
87. Hunter (see note 1 above), 327.
88. Najibullah (see note 17 above).
89. International Crisis Group (see note 51 above).
90. Vitalii Ponomarev, "A Watershed Event for Turkmenistan's Political Opposition: A Commentary for the Turkmenistan Project," EurasiaNet, 13 Sep. 2006. http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/rights/articles/eav112503.shtml (accessed 5 Sep. 2006). There are two competing "theories" about the November 2002 attack. In one, the security forces of President Niyazov staged the shooting as a pretext for tightening up control in the state. Another story tells of a failed coup attempt organized and carried out by the former Turkmen ministers who went into opposition of the Niyazov's cabinet. For a review of these "theories,"
91. see Annette Bohr, "A Failed Coup after All?" Central Asia-Caucasus Analyst, 18 June 2003. http:/www.cacianalyst.org/view_article. php?articleid=1496&SMSESSION=NO (accessed 1 Nov. 2004).
92. "Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and the International Religious Freedom Act." Letter to U.S. Secretary of State Colin L. Powell. New York, 21 Aug. 2002. http:/www.eurasianet.org/turkmenistan.project/files2/02-08- 21HRWLetter%20to%20Colin%20Powell.doc (accessed 15 Mar. 2003).
93. Swari Parashar, "Turkmenistan: A Central Asian State without Religious Extremism," South Asia Analysis Group, Paper No. 1130, New Delhi, 30 Sep. 2004;
94. "Islam in Turkmenistan," Country Blog, Turkmenistan, Neweurasia, 21 May 2006. http:/turkmenistan.neweurasia.net/?p=135 (accessed 20 Aug. 2006).
95. International Crisis Group (see note 5 above), 34.
96. Cummings and Ochs (see note 21 above), 122-123.
97. MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Database. A Comprehensive Databank of Global Terrorist Incidents and Organizations. http:/fwww.tkb.org/Home.jsp
98. The CIS World Fact Book, http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ (accessed 28 Jun. 2004).
99. Polonskaya and Malashenko (see note 41 above), 33.
100. The role of Islam in Kazakh society somewhat intensified in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. However, the Kazakh nomads never observed Islamic prohibitions and laws very closely. Their Islamic practices, largely confined to the spheres of family life and cultural rites, were intertwined with pre-Islamic pagan traditions and Adat, a common law prevalent in the steppe. http:/www.carnegie.ru/ru/pubs/books/36277.htm).
101. According to the results of the exit poll conducted during the Presidential election on 4 December 2005 by the International Republican Institution in Collaboration with Baltic Surveys and the Gallup organization, 87.3% of Russian respondents voted for the incumbent president Nazarbayev. Russians constituted 30.3% of the sample of 23,780 voters interviewed at 283 polling stations. www.iri.org/pdfs/KAZ%20EXIT%20REPORT.ppt (accessed 1 May 2006).
102. Among the Central Asian republics, Kazakhstan recognizes no Muslim holidays and does not mention Islam in its constitution (Martha B. Olcott, Central Asia's New States: Independence, Foreign Policy, and Regional Security (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996), 32).
103. "President says radical Islamic group stepping up activity in Kazakhstan," Associated Press Worldstream, 1 Sep. 2004. http:/www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1:98581134/ President+says+radical+Islamic+group+stepping+up+activity+in+Kazakhstan.html (accessed 19 Aug. 2006).
104. In 2005, the Minister of Emergency Situations of Kyrgyzstan, Muhambet Kopeyev, announced that international terrorist activities have been rampant recently and Kazakhstan should develop its capacity to effectively defend its territory and people against possible attacks (in "Kazakhstan Wraps up Anti-Terror maneuver," PLA Daily, 20 March 2005. http://english.chinamil.com.cn/site2/news-channels/2005-03/20/content.162815. htm (accessed 19 Aug. 2006).
105. "Group Behind Terrorist Attacks in Uzbekistan May Have Links in Kazakhstan, Anti-Terror Official Says," Associated Press Worldstream, 26 Apr. 2004.
106. Center for Defense Information (CDI) Arms Trade, "US military assistance to Kazakhstan," 11 Dec. 2003. http:/www.cdi.org/friendlyversion/ printversion.cfm?documentID=1912 (accessed 15 June 2005).
107. In November 2001, prominent business leaders, some of whom are former government officials, united in a new opposition movement, the Democratic Choice of Kazakhstan (DCK), under the slogan "Kazakhstan without Nazarbayev." The DCK voted to abandon this slogan during its meeting on 18 January, 2003 (Ibragim Alibekov, "Democratic Choice of Kazakhstan Abandoned Slogan 'Kazakhstan without Nazarbaev, '" EurasiaNet, 31 Jan. 2003. http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav013103.shtm1 (accessed 1 May 2006).
108. Martha B. Olcott, Central Asia's Second Chance (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2005), 181-182. An electronic version of the book in Russian, http://www.carnegie.ru/ru/pubs/books/
109. Kadyr Toktogulov, "Kyrgyzstan Struggles to Keep Out Al-Qaida," The Associated Press, 3 March 2004. http://www.themoscowtimes.com/ stories/2004/03/03/258.html (accessed 12 Jun. 2004).
110. However, recent scholarship has disputed this (Lubin and Rubin (see note 13 above), 40).
111. The south of Kyrgyzstan, populated by the ethnic Uzbeks, is characterized by much greater religious observance (International Crisis Group (see note 5 above), 22).
112. Russian source
113. Lubin and Rubin (see note 13 above), 9.
114. Russian source http:/www.liter.kz/site.php?lan=russian&id= 167&pub=3307 (accessed 20 Aug. 2006).
115. International Crisis Group (see note 5 above), 37.
116. http:/www.ferghana.ru/article.php?id=3951 (accessed 20 Aug. 2006).
117. Ibid.
118. Nadia Usaeva, "Trial Focuses Attention on Possible Uighur Repression" (RFE/RL 8 Aug. 2001). http://www.rferl.org/nca/features/2001/ 08/31082001115924.asp (accessed 12 May 2006).
119. Gulnoza Saidazimova, "Kyrgyz-Uzbek Authorities Battle Religious Dissent," Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 11 Aug. 2006.
120. See for review, Wojciech Bartuzi, Grzegorz Zasada, and Marceli Zygala, "Central Asia after September 11, 2001 - Political Islam Draws Back;" Islam in Central Asia - CES Research Programm, 19 Dec. 2002 (Translated by Izabela Zygmunt);
121. Saltanat Berdikeeva, "Myth and Reality of Islamist Extremism in Central Asia," Eurasia 21; "The Role of Religion in Politics of Central Asian and Caucuses" (see note 46 above).
122. "The Role of Religion in Politics of Central Asian and Caucuses" (see note 46 above).
123. The policies of Tsarist and Soviet Russia had strengthened this pattern. In the lands of nomads, the colonial regime encouraged Russification, while in the sedentary regions it sought to regulate existing Islamic institutions (International Crisis Group (see note 5 above)).
124. Hunter (see note 1 above), 334.
125. Bohr (see note 47 above), 21.
126. Hooman Peimani, "Abusing the 'War on Terrorism' in Central Asia,' Central Asia-Caucasus, 16 Aug. 2002. http:/www.e-ariana.com/ariana/eariana.nsf/ allDocsArticles/07E3B1B0353C639287256C17005F637B?OpenDocument (accessed 15 May 2005).
127. Aziz Niyazi, "Islam and Tajikistan's Human and Ecological Crisis," in M. Holt Ruffin and Daniel C. Waugh, eds., Civil Society in Central Asia (Seattle, WA: Center for Civil Society International in association with University of Washington Press, 1999), 189-190.
128. Polonskaya and Malashenko (see note41 above), 127.
129. Mark I. Linchbach, "Deterrence or Escalation? The Puzzle of Aggregate Studies of Repression and Dissent," Journal of Conflict Resolution 31 (1998): 266-297;
130. Will H. Moore, "Repression and Dissent: Substitution, Context, and Timing," American Journal of Political Science 42 (1998): 851-873.
131. Bryan Brophy-Baermann and John A. C. Conybeare, "Retaliating against Terrorism: Rational Expectations and the Optimality of Rules versus Discretion," American Journal of Political Science 38 (1994): 196-210.
132. Alisher Khamidov, Countering the Call: The U.S., Hizb ut-Tahrir, and Religious Extremism in Central Asia (Washington, DC: The Saban Center for Middle East Policy at the Brookings Institution, 2003), 15; International Crisis Group (see note 5 above).
133. Commission on Human Rights, Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights E/CN.4/Sub.2/2001/31, 27 June 2001.