Morphology, chemistry, and spectral properties of Hawaiian rock coatings and implications for Mars

Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets

Volumn 112, Issue 5, 2007, Pages

  Minitti, Michelle E ^a   Weitz, Catherine M ^b   Lane, Melissa D ^b   Bishop, Janice L ^c  

^a ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b PLANETARY SCIENCE INSTITUTE   (United States)

^c NASA AMES RESEARCH CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COATING; MARS; MORPHOLOGY; NEAR INFRARED; TEPHRA;

HAWAII [(ISL) HAWAIIAN ISLANDS]; HAWAII [UNITED STATES]; HAWAIIAN ISLANDS; NORTH AMERICA; PACIFIC ISLANDS; PACIFIC OCEAN; UNITED STATES;

EMMELICHTHYIDAE;

EID: 34447296417     PISSN: 01480227     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/2006JE002839     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. Abrams, M., E. A. Abbott, and A. B. Kahle (1991), Combined use of visible, reflected infrared, and thermal infrared images for mapping Hawaiian lava flows, J. Geophys. Res., 96(2), 475-481.
2. Adams, J. B., and T. B. McCord (1969), Mars: Interpretation of spectral reflectivity or light and dark regions, J. Geophys. Res., 74(20), 4851-4856.
3. Allen, C. C., J. L. Gooding, M. Jercinovic, and K. Keil (1981), Altered basaltic glass: A terrestrial analog to the soil of Mars, Icarus, 45, 347-369.
4. Almeida, R. M. (1992), Detection of LO modes in glass by infrared reflection spectroscopy at oblique incidence, Phys. Rev. B, 45(1), 161-170.
5. Aronson, J. R., A. G. Emslie, and H. G. McLinden (1966), Infrared spectra from particulate surfaces, Science, 152, 345-346.
6. Bandfield, J. L., V E. Hamilton, and P. R. Christensen (2000), A global view of Martian surface compositions from MGS-TES, Science, 287, 1626-1630.
7. Banin, A., F. X. Han, I. Kan, and A. Cicelsky (1997), Acidic volatiles and the Mars soil, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 13,341-13,356.
8. Bell, P. M., H. K. Mao, and R. A. Weeks (1976), Optical spectra and electron paramagnetic resonance of lunar and synthetic glasses: A study of the effects of controlled atmosphere, composition, and temperature, Proc. Lunar Sci. Conf., 7, 2543-2559.
9. Bell, J. F., III, et al. (2004), Pancam multispectral imaging results from the Spirit Rover at Gusev Crater, Science, 305, 800-806.
10. Berger, G., J. Schott, and M. Loubet (1997), Fundamental processes controlling the first stage of alteration of a basalt glass by seawater: An experimental study between 200 and 320°C, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 84(43),I-445.
11. Bibring, J.-P., and the OMEGA Team (2004), Eur Space Agency Spec. Pub., 1240, 37.
12. Bishop, J. L., C. M. Pieters, and R. G. Burns (1993), Reflectance and Mössbauer spectroscopy of ferrihydrite-montmorillonite assemblages as Mars soil analog materials, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 57(19), 4583-4595.
13. Bishop, J. L., S. L. Murchie, C. M. Pieters, and A. P. Zent (2002), A model for formation of dust, soil, and rock coatings on Mars: Physical and chemical process on the Martian surface, J. Geophys. Res., 107(E11), 5097, doi:10.1029/2001JE001581.
14. Bunker, B. C., G. W. Arnold, E. K. Beauchamp, and D. E. Day (1983), Mechanisms for alkali leaching in mixed Na-K silicate glasses, J. Non Cryst. Solids, 58, 295-322.
15. Burns, R. G. (1987), Ferric sulfates on Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 92, 570-574.
16. Burns, R. G. (1993a). Origin of electronic spectra of minerals in the visible to near-inftared region, in Remote Geochemical Analysis: Elemental and Mineralogical Composition, edited by C. M. Pieters and P. A. J. Englert pp. 3-29, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York.
17. Burns, R. G. (1993b), Rates and mechanisms of chemical weathering of ferromagnesian silicate minerals on Mars, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 57, 4555-4574.
18. Burns, R. G., and D. S. Fisher (1990), Iron-sulfur mineralogy of Mars: Magmatic evolution and chemical weathering products, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 14,415-14,421.
19. Casey, W. H., H. R. Westrich, and G. W. Arnold (1988), Surface chemistry of labradorite feldspar reacted with aqueous solutions at pH = 2, 3, and 12, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 52, 2795-2807.
20. Chemtob, S. M., B. L. Jolliff, and R. E. Arvidson (2006), Si and Ti-rich surface coatings on Hawaiian basalt and implications for remote sensing on Mars, Proc. Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf., Abstract #1443.
21. Christensen, P. R. (2003), Formation of recent Martian gullies through melting of extensive water-rich snow deposits, Nature, 422, 45-48.
22. Christensen, P. R., et al. (2004), Initial results from the Mini-TES experiment in Gusev Crater from the Spirit Rover, Science, 305, 837-842.
23. Clark, B. C., and D. C. Van Hart (1981), The salts of Mars, Icarus, 45, 370-378.
24. Clark, B. C., et al. (2005), Chemistry and mineralogy of outcrops at Meridiani Planum, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 240(1), 73-94.
25. Clow, G. D. (1987), Generation of liquid water on Mars through the melting of a dusty snowpack, Icarus, 72, 95-127.
26. Cornell, R., and U. Schwertmann (1996), The iron oxides: Structures, properties, reactions, occurrences and uses, 573 pp., VHC, New York.
27. Crisp, J., A. B. Kahle, and E. A. Abbott (1990), Thermal infrared spectral character of Hawaiian basaltic glasses, J. Geophys. Res., 95(B13), 21,657-21,669.
28. Crovisier, J.-L., J. Honnorez, and J. P. Eberhart (1987), Dissolution of basaltic glass in seawater: Mechanism and rate, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 51, 2977-2990.
29. Crovisier, J.-L., T. Advocat, and J,-L. Dussossoy (2003), Nature and role of natural alteration gels formed on the surface of ancient volcanic glasses (Natural analogs of waste containment glasses), J. Nucl. Mater., 321, 91-109.
30. Curtiss, B., J. B. Adams, and M. S. Ghiorso (1985), Origin, development and chemistry of silica-alumina rock coatings from the semi-arid regions of the island of Hawaii, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 49, 49-56.
31. Daux, V, J.-L. Crovisier, C. Hemond, and J. C. Petite (1994), Geochemical evolution of basaltic rocks subjected to weathering: Fate of the major elements, rare earth elements, and thorium, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 58(22), 4941-4954.
32. Daux, V., C. Guy, T. Advocat, J.-L. Crovisier, and P. Stille, (1997), Kinetic aspects of basaltic glass dissolution at 90°C: Role of aqueous silicon and aluminum, Chem. Geol., 142, 109-126.
33. Deal, K. S., R. E. Arvidson, and B. L. Jolliff (2003), Remote mapping of the Ka'u Desert, Hawai'i: Silica in a Mars analog terrain, Proc. Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf., Abstract #1952.
34. Deer, W. A., R. A. Howie, J. Zussman (1966), An Introduction to the Rock Forming Minerals, 528 pp., John Wiley, Hoboken, N. J.
35. Drever, J. I. (1997), The Geochemistry of Natural Waters, 436 pp., Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, N. J.
36. Eick, M. J., P. R. Grossl, D. C. Golden, D. L. Sparks, and D. W. Ming (1996), Dissolution kinetics of a lunar glass stimulant at 25°C: The effect of pH and organic acids, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 60(1), 157-170.
37. El-Shamy, T. M., J. Lewins, and R. W. Douglas (1972), The dependence of the pH on the decomposition of glasses by aqueous solutions, J. Soc. Glass Technol., 13(3), 81-87.
38. Farr, T. G., and J. B. Adams (1984), Rock coatings in Hawaii, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 95, 1077-1083.
39. Farrand, W. H., J. F. Bell III, J. R. Johnson, S. W. Squyres, J. Soderblom, and D. W. Ming (2006), Spectral variability among rocks in visible and near-infrared multispectral Pancam data collected at Gusev crater: Examinations using spectral mixture analysis and related techniques, J. Geophys. Res., 111, E02SI5, doi:10.1029/ 2005JE002495.
40. Feely, K. C., and P. R. Christensen (1999), Quantitative compositional analysis using thermal emission spectroscopy: Application to igneous and metamorphic rocks, J. Geophys. Res., 104(E10), 24,195-24,210.
41. Feldman, W. C., et al. (2004), Global distribution of near-surface hydrogen on Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 109, E09006, doi:10.1029/ 2003JE002160.
42. Fischer, E., and C. M. Pieters (1993), The continuum slope of Mars: Bi-directional reflectance investigations and applications to Olympus Mons, Icarus, 102, 185-202.
43. Foley, C. N., T. Economou, and R. N. Clayton (2003), Final chemical results from the Mars Pathfinder alpha proton x-ray spectrometer, J. Geophys. Res., 108(E12), 8096, doi:10.1029/2002JE002019.
44. Furnes, H. (1984), Chemical changes during progressive subaerial palagonitization of a subglacial tholeiite hyaloclastite: A microprobe study, Chem. Geol., 43, 271-285.
45. Furnes, H., and M. I. H. El-Anbaawy (1980), Chemical changes and authigenic mineral formation during palagonitization of a basanite hyaloclastite, Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Neues Jahrb. Mineral Abh., 139, 279-302.
46. Gellert, R., et al. (2004), Chemistry of rocks and soils in Gusev Crater from the Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer, Science, 305, 829-832.
47. Gendrin, A., et al. (2005), Sulfates in Martian layered terrains: The OMEGA/Mars Express view, Science, 307(5715), 1587-1591.
48. 2-rich films on soda-lime glass, Glastech. Ber., 64(8), 205-217.
49. Gislason, S. R., and H. P. Eugster (1987), Meteoric water-basalt interactions. I: A laboratory study, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 51, 2827-2840.
50. Golden, D. C., R. V. Morris, D. W. Ming, J. F. Bell III, S. V. Yang, and D. R. Thompson (1996), Occurrence of a titanium-bearing jarosite from Hawaii, Proc. Lunar Planet. Sci., XXVIIth, 427-428.
51. Grotzinger, J. P., et al. (2005), Stratigraphy and sedimentology of a dry to wet eolian depositional system, Burns formation, Meridiani Planum, Mars, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 240(1), 11-72.
52. Guy, C., and J. Schott (1989), Multisite surface reaction versus transport control during the hydrolysis of a complex oxide, in Kinetic Geochemistry, edited by J. Schott and A. C. Lasaga, Chem. Geol., 78, 181-204.
53. Haberle, R. M., C. P. McKay, J. Schaeffer, N. A. Cabrol, E. A. Grin, A. P. Zent, and R. Quinn (2001), On the possibility of liquid water on present-day Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 106(E10), 23,317-23,326.
54. Hamilton, V. E., and P. R. Christensen (2000), Determining the modal mineralogy of mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks using thermal emission spectroscopy, J. Geophys. Res., 105(E4), 9717-9733.
55. Harding, D., and J. M. Miller (1982), The influence on rain chemistry of the Hawaiian volcano Kilauea, J. Geophys. Res., 87(C2), 1225-1230.
56. Haskin, L. A. (2005), Water alteration of rocks and soils from the Spirit Rover site, Gusev Crater, Mars, Nature, 436, doi:10.1038/ nature03640.
57. Hay, R. L., and A. Iijima (1968), Nature and origin of palagonite tuffs of the Honolulu Group on Oahu, Hawaii, Geol. Soc. Am. Mem., 116, 338-376.
58. Hay, R. L., and B. F. Jones (1972), Weathering of basaltic tephra on the island of Hawaii, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 83, 317-332.
59. Hecht M. H. (2002), Metastability of liquid water on Mars, Icarus, 156, 373-386.
60. Herkenhoff, K. E., et al. (2004), Evidence from Opportunity's microscopic imager for water on Meridiani Planum, Science, 306(5702), 1727-1730.
61. Hunt, G. R., and R. K. Vincent (1968), The behavior of spectral features in the infrared emission from particulate surfaces of various grain sizes, J. Geophys. Res., 73(18), 6039-6046.
62. Hurowitz, J. A., S. M. McLennan, D. H. Lindsley, and M. A. A. Schoonen (2005), Experimental epithermal alteration of synthetic Los Angeles meteorite: Implications for the origin of Martian soils and identification of hydrothermal sites on Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 110, E07002, doi:10.1029/2004JE002391.
63. Hurowitz, J. A., S. M. McLennan, N. J. Tosca, R. E. Arvidson, J. R. Michalski, D. W. Ming, C. Schroder, and S. W. Squyres (2006), In situ and experimental evidence for acidic weathering of rocks and soils on Mars, J Geophys. Res., 111, E02S19, doi:10.1029/2005JE002515.
64. Jakosky, B. M., and M. H. Carr (1985), Possible precipitation of ice at low latitudes of Mars during periods of high obliquity, Nature, 315, 559-561.
65. Jercinovic, M. J., K. Keil, M. R. Smith, and R. A. Schmitt (1990), Alteration of basaltic glasses from north-central British Columbia, Canada, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 54, 2679-2696.
66. Johnson, J. R., et al. (1999), Preliminary results on photometric properties of materials at the Sagan Memorial Station, Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 8809-8830.
67. Johnson, J. R., P. R. Christensen, and P. G. Lucey (2002), Dust coatings on basaltic rocks and implications for thermal infrared spectroscopy of Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 107(E6), 5035, doi:10.1029/2000JE001405.
68. Jolliff, B., A. Knoll, W. Farrand, R. Sullivan, and the Athena Science Team (2006), Rock rinds at Meridiani and surface weathering phenomena, Fall AGU.
69. Kahle, A. B., A. R. Gillespie, E. A. Abbott, M. J. Abrams, R. E. Walker, G. Hoover, and J. P. Lockwood (1998), Relative dating of Hawaiian lava flows using multispectral thermal infrared images: A new tool for geologic mapping of young volcanic terranes, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 15,239-15,251.
70. Kamitsos, E. I., A. P. Patsis, and G. Kordas (1993), Infrared-reflectance spectra of heat-treated, sol-gel-derived silica, Phys. Rev. B, 48(17), 12,499-12,505.
71. Kirk, C. T. (1988), Quantitative analysis of the effect of disorder-induced mode coupling on infrared absorption in silica, Phys. Rev. B, 38(2), 1255-1273.
72. Klingelhofer, G., et al. (2004), Jarosite and hematite at Meridiani Planum from Opportunity's Mössbauer spectrometer, Science, 306(5702), 1740-1745.
73. 2, temperature, and time, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 57, 285-294.
74. Kraft, M. D., J. R. Michalski, and T. G. Sharp (2003), Effects of pure silica coatings on thermal emission spectra of basaltic rocks: Considerations for Martian surface mineralogy, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(24), 2288, doi:10.1029/2003GL018848.
75. Lane, M. D. (1999), Midinfrared optical constants of calcite and their relationship to particle size effects in thermal emission spectra of granular calcite, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 14,099-14,108.
76. 2 films, J. Appl. Phys., 66(1), 201-204.
77. Learner, Z. A., et al. (2006), Surface coatings at Meridiani Planum, Mars, Proc. Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf., Abstract #2040.
78. Lucovsky, G., P. D. Richard, D. V. Tsu, S. Y. Lin, and R. J. Markunas (1986), Deposition of silicon dioxide and silicon nitride by remote plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A Vac. Surf. Films, 4(3), 681-688.
79. Lyon, R. J. P. (1964), Evaluation of infrared spectrophotometry for compositional analysis of lunar and planetary soils: II. Rough and powdered surfaces, NASA Conf. Rep., CR-100.
80. Macdonald, G. A. (1944), Solfataric alteration of rocks it Kilauea volcano, Am. J. Sci., 242(9), 496-505.
81. McLennan, S. M. (2003), Sedimentary silica on Mars, Geology, 31(4), 315-318.
82. McLennan, S. M., et al. (2005), Provenance and diagenesis of the evaporite-bearing Burns formation, Meridiani Planum, Mars, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 240(1), 95-121.
83. McSween, H. Y., Jr., et al. (1999),, Chemical, multispectral, and textural constraints on the composition and origin of rocks at the Mars Pathfinder landing site, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 8679-8715.
84. McSween, H. Y, Jr., et al. (2004), Basaltic rocks analyzed by the Spirit Rover in Gusev Crater, Science, 305, 842-845.
85. Mellon, M. T., and B. M. Jakosky (1995), The distribution and behavior of Martian ground ice during past and present epochs, J. Geophys. Res., 100(E6), 11,781-11,799.
86. Mellon, M. T., and R. J. Phillips (2001), Recent gullies on Mars and the source of liquid water, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 23,165-23,180.
87. Michalski, J. R., M. D. Kraft, T. G. Sharp, L. B. Williams, and P. R. Christensen (2005), Mineralogical constraints on the high-silica Martian surface component observed by TES, Icarus, 174(1), 161-177.
88. Ming, D. W., et al. (2006), Geochemical and mineralogical indicators for aqueous processes in the Columbia Hills of Gusev crater, Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 111, E02S12, doi:10.1029/2005JE002560.
89. Minitti, M. E., J. F. Mustard, and M. J. Rutherford (2002), Effects of glass content and oxidation on the spectra of SNC-like basalts: Applications to Mars remote sensing, J. Geophys. Res., 107(E5), 5036, doi:10.1029/2001JE001518.
90. Moersch, J. E., and P. R. Christensen (1995), Thermal emission from particulate surfaces: A comparison of scattering models with measured spectra, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 7465-7477.
91. Mogk, D. W., and W. W. Locke III (1988), Application of Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) to naturally weathered homblende, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 52, 2537-2542.
92. Morris, R. V., and H. V. Lauer Jr. (1990), Matrix effects for reflectivity spectra of dispersed nanophase (superparamagnetic) hematite with application to Martian spectral data, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 5101-5109.
93. 4), goethite (α-FeOOH), and lepidocrocite (γ-FeOOH), J. Geophys. Res., 90, 3126-3144.
94. Morris, R. V., D. G. Agresti, H. V. Lauer Jr., J. A. Newcomb, T. D. Shelfer, and A. V. Murali (1989), Evidence for pigmentary hematite on Mars based on optical, magnetic, and Mössbauer studies of superparamagnetic (nanocrystalline) hematite, J. Geophys. Res., 94, 2760-2778.
95. Morris, R. V., D. W. Ming, D. C. Golden, and J. F. Bell III (1996), An occurrence of jarositic tephra on Mauna Kea, Hawaii: Implications for the ferric mineralogy of the Martian surface, in Mineral Spectroscopy: A Tribute to Roger G. Burns, edited by M. D. Dyar, C. McCammon and M. W. Shaefer, Spec. Publ. Geochem. Soc., 5, 327-336.
96. Morris, R. V., et al. (2000), Mineralogy, composition, and alteration of Mars Pathfinder rocks and soils: Evidence from multispectral, elemental, and magnetic data on terrestrial analogue, SNC meteorite, and Pathfinder samples, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 1757-1817.
97. Morris, R. V., T. G. Graff, S. A. Mertzman, M. D. Lane, and P. R. Christensen (2003), Palagonitic Mars from rock rinds to dust: Evidence from visible, near-IR, and thermal emission spectra of poorly crystalline materials, Proc. Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf. 34th, abstract 1874.
98. Morris, R. V., et al. (2006), Mössbauer mineralogy of rock, soil, and dust at Gusev crater, Mars: Spirit's journey through weakly altered olivine basalt on the plains and pervasively altered basalt in the Columbia Hills, J. Geophys. Res., 111, E02S13, doi:10.1029/ 2005JE002584.
99. Murchie, S., O. Barnouin-Jha, K. Barnouin-Jha, J. L. Bishop, R. V. Morris, J. Johnson, and H. Y. McSween Jr. (2005), New insights into the geology of the Mars Pathfinder landing site from spectral and morphologic analysis of the 12-color SuperPan Panorama, Icarus, in revision.
100. Murchie, S. L., et al. (2007), Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), J. Geophys. Res., doi:10.1029/2006JE002682, in press.
101. Mustard, J. F., and J. E. Hays (1997), Effects of hyperfine particles on reflectance spectra from 0.3 to 25 μm, Icarus, 125, 145-163.
102. Mustard, J. F., C. D. Cooper, and M. K. Rifkin (2001), Evidence for recent climate change on Mars from the identification of youthful near-surface ground ice, Nature, 412, 411-414.
103. Oelkers, E. H., and S. R. Gislason (2001), The mechanism, rates and consequences of basaltic glass dissolution: I. An experimental study of the dissolution rates of basaltic glass as a function of aqueous Al, Si and oxalic acid concentration at 25 C and pH = 3 and 11, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 65(21), 3671-3681.
104. Pai, P. G., S. S. Chao, Y. Takagi, and G, Lucovsky (1986), Infrared spectroscopic study of SiOx films produced by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A Vac. Surf. Films, 4(3), 689-694.
105. Petit, J.-C., J.-C. Dran, and G. Della Mea (1990), Energetic ion-beam analysis in the earth sciences, Nature, 344(6267), 621-626.
106. Pieters, C. M. (1983), Strength of mineral absorption features on the transmitted component of near-infrared reflected light: First results from RELAB, J. Geophys. Res., 88, 9534-9544.
107. 3 on the chemical durability of silicate glasses at different pH values, J. Mater. Sci., 13, 1499-1502.
108. Rieder, R., R. Gellert, J. Brückner, G. Klingelhöfer, G. Dreibus, A. Yen, and S. W. Squyres (2003), The new Athena alpha particle X-ray spectrometer for the Mars Exploration Rovers, J. Geophys. Res., 108(E12), 8066, doi:10.1029/2003JE002150.
109. Rieder, R., et al. (2004), Chemistry of rocks and soils at Meridiani Planum from the alpha particle X-ray spectrometer, Science, 306(5702), 1746-1749.
110. Rose, N. M. (1991), Dissolution rates of prehnite, epidote, and albite, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 55, 3273-3286.
111. Salisbury, J. W., and A. E. Wald (1992), The role of volume scattering in reducing spectral contrast of reststrahlen bands in spectra of powdered minerals, Proc. Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf 23rd, 1205-1206.
112. Schiffman, P., R. Zierenberg, N. Marks, J. L. Bishop, and M. D. Dyar (2007), Acid fog deposition at Kilauea volcano: A possible mechanism for the formation of siliceous-sulfate rock coatings on Mars, Geology, (in press).
113. Scholze, H. (1988), Glass-water interactions, J. Non Cryst. Solids, 102, 1-10.
114. Schott, J., and J.-C. Petit (1987), New evidence for the mechanisms of dissolution of silicate minerals, in Aquatic Surface Chemistry, edited by W. Stumm, pp. 293-315, Wiley-Interscience, Hoboken, N. J.
115. Settle, M. (1979), Formation and deposition of volcanic sulfate aerosols on Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 84, 8343-8354.
116. Siegel, D. I., and H. O. Pfannkueh (1984), Silicate mineral dissolution at pH 4 and near standard temperature and pressure, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta; 48, 197-201.
117. Singer, R. B. (4986), The composition of the Martian dark regions: Observations and analysis, Ph.D. thesis, 301 pp., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston.
118. Singer, R. B. (1982), Spectral evidence for the mineralogy of high albedo soils and dust on Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 87(B12), 10,159-10,168.
119. Singer, R. B., and T, B. McCord (1979), Mars: Large scale mixing of bright and dark surface materials and implications for analysis of spectral reflectance, Proc. Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf., 10, 1835-1848,
120. Smets, B., and T. Lommen (1982), The leaching of sodium aluminosilicate glasses studied by secondary ion mass-spectrometry, Phys. Chem. Glasses, 23(3), 83-87.
121. Smith, P. H., et al. (097), Results from the Mars Pathfinder camera, Science, 278, 1758-1765.
122. Squyres, S. W., et al. (2004), In situ evidence, for an ancient aqueous environment at Meridiani Planum, Mars, Science, 306(5702), 1709-1714.
123. Squyres, S. W., et al. (2006), Two years at Meridiani Planum: Results from the Opportunity Rover, Science, 313, 1403-1407.
124. Stearns, H. T., and K. N. Vaksvik (1935), Geology and ground water resources of the island of Oahu, Hawaii, Hawaii Div. of Hydrography, Bull., 1, 88.
125. Stillings, L. L., and S. L. Brantley (1995), Feldspar dissolution at 25°C and pH 3: Reaction stoichiometry and the effect of cations, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 59, 1483-1496.
126. Stroncik, N. A., and H.-U. Schmincke (2002), Palagonite - A review, Int. J. Earth Sci., 91, 680-697, doi:10.1001/s00531-001-0238-7.
127. Stumm, W., and J. J. Morgan (1996), Aquatic Chemistry: Chemical Equilibria and Rates in Natural Waters, 3rd ed., 1022 pp., Wiley-Interscience, Hoboken, N. J.
128. Thorseth, I, H., H. Furnes, and O. Tumyr (1091), A textural and chemical study of Icelandic palagonite of varied composition and its bearing on the mechanism of the glass-palagonite transformation, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 55, 731-749.
129. Tosca, N. J., S. M. McLennan, D. H. Lindsley, and M. A. A. Schoonen (2004), Acid-sulfate weathering of synthetic Martian basalt: The acid fog model revisited, J. Geophys. Res., 109, E05003, doi:10.1029/ 2003JE002218.
130. van Breemen, N. (1982), Genesis, morphology and classification of acid sulfate soils in coastal plains, in Acid Sulfate Weathering, edited by J. A. Kittrick, D. S. Fanning, and L. R. Hossner pp. 95-108, Spec. Pub., 10, Soil Sci. Soc. America, Madison, WI.
131. White, A. F. (1984), Weathering characteristics of natural glass and influences on associated water chemistry, J. Non Cryst. Solids, 67, 225-244.
132. Wyatt, M. B., and H. Y. McSween Jr. (2002), Spectral evidence for weathered basalt as an alternative to andesite in the northern lowlands of Mars, Nature, 417, 263-266.
133. Wyatt, M. B., V. E. Hamilton, H. Y. McSween Jr., P. R. Christensen, and L. A. Taylor (2001), Analysis of terrestrial and Martian volcanic compositions using thermal emission spectroscopy: I. Determination of mineralogy, chemistry, and classification strategies, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 14,711-14,732.