Gas hydrates in marine sediments: Lessons from scientific ocean drilling

Oceanography

Volumn 19, Issue SPL.ISS. 4, 2006, Pages 124-142

  Tréhu, Anne M ^a   Ruppel, Carolyn ^b,c   Holland, Melanie ^d   Dickens, Gerald R ^e   Torres, Marta E ^a   Collett, Timothy S ^c   Goldberg, David ^f   Riedel, Michael ^g   Schultheiss, Peter ^d  

^a OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b GEORGIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

^c U S GEOLOGICAL SURVEY   (United States)

^d GEOTEK LTD   (United Kingdom)

^e RICE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^f Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences   (United States)

^g MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34347229183     PISSN: 10428275     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5670/oceanog.2006.11     Document Type: Article

References (140)

1. Abegg, F., G. Bohrmann, and W. Kuhs. In press. Data report: Shapes and structures of gas hydrates imaged by computed tomographic-analyses, ODP Leg 204, Hydrate Ridge. Pp. 1-8 in Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, v. 204,
2. Tréhu, G. Bohrmann, F.S. Colwell, M. Torres, eds. Ocean Drilling Program, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX. [Online] Available at http://www-odp.tamu.edu/publications/204_SR/204TOC.HTM [last accessed September 8, 2006].
3. Backus, M.M., P.E. Murray, B.A. Hardage, and R.J. Graebner. 2006. High-resolution multicomponent imaging of deepwater gas-hydrate systems. The Leading Edge 25:578-598.
4. Bangs, N.L., R.J. Musgrave, and A.M. Tréhu. 2005. Upward shifts in the south Hydrate Ridge gas hydrate stability zone following post-glacial warming offshore Oregon. Journal of Geophysical Research 110: B03102, doi:10.1029/2004JB003293.
5. Bellefleur, G., M. Riedel, and T. Brent. 2006. Seismic characterization and continuity analysis of gas-hydrate horizons near Mallik research wells, Mackenzie Delta, Canada. The Leading Edge 25(5):599-604.
6. Boetius, A., K. Ravenschlag, C.J. Shubert, D. Rickert, F. Widdel, A. Gieseke, R. Amann, B.B. Jorgensen, U. Witte, and O. Pfannkuche. 2000. Microscopic identification of a microbial consortium apparently mediating anaerobic methane oxidation above marine gas hydrate. Nature 407:623-626.
7. Borowski, W.S., C.K. Paull, and W. Ussler III. 1996. Marine pore water sulfate profiles indicate in situ methane flux from underlying gas hydrate. Geology 24:655-658.
8. Bowen, G.J., T.J. Bralower, G.R Dickens, M. Delaney, D.C. Kelly, P.L. Koch, L. Kump, J. Meng, L.C. Sloan, E. Thomas, S.L. Wing, and J.C. Zachos. 2006. Disciplinary and cross-disciplinary study of the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum gives new insight into greenhouse gas-induced environmental and biotic change. EOS Transactions, American Geophysical Union 87(17):165, 169.
9. Brooks, J.M., M.C. Kennicutt II, R.R. Fay, T.J. MacDonald, and R. Sassen. 1984. Thermogenic gas hydrates in the Gulf of Mexico. Science 225:409-411.
10. Buffett, B., and D. Archer. 2004. Global inventory of methane clathrate: Sensitivity to changes in the deep ocean. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 227:185-199.
11. Carson, B., E. Seke, V. Paskevich, and M.L. Holmes. 1994. Fluid expulsion sites on the Cascadia accretionary prism: Mapping diagenetic deposits with processed GLORIA imagery. Journal of Geophysical Research 99:11,959-11,969.
12. Chapman, N.R., J.W. Pohlman, R.B. Coffin, J.P. Chanton, and L. Lapham. 2004. Thermogenic gas hydrates in the northern Cascadia Margin. EOS Transactions, American Geophysical Union 85:361-365.
13. Claypool, G.E., and I.R. Kaplan. 1974. The origin and distribution of methane in marine sediments. Pp. 99-139 in Natural Gases in Marine Sediments, I.R. Kaplan, ed. Plenum Publishing Corp, New York, NY.
14. Claypool, G.E., A.V. Milkov, Y.-J. Lee, M.E. Torres, W.S. Borowski, and H. Tomaru. In press. Microbial methane generation and gas transport in shallow sediments of the accretionary complex, southern Hydrate Ridge (ODP Leg 204), offshore Oregon, USA. Pp. 1-51 in Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, vol. 204, A. Tre ́hu, G. Bohrmann, F.S. Colwell, and M. Torres, eds. Ocean Drilling Program, Texas A&M University, College Stations, TX. [Online] Available at: http://www-odp.tamu.edu/publications/204_SR/204TOC.HTM [last accessed September 8, 2006].
15. Clennell, M.B., M. Hovland, J.S. Booth, P. Henry, and W.J. Winters. 1999. Formation of natural gas hydrates in marine sediments: 1. Conceptual model of gas hydrate growth conditioned by host sediment properties. Journal of Geophysical Research 104:22,985-23,003.
16. Collett, T.S. 1993. Natural gas hydrates of the Prudhoe Bay and Kuparuk River area, North Slope, Alaska. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 77:793-812.
17. Collett, T.S., and J. Ladd. 2000. Detection of gas hydrate with downhole logs and assessment of gas hydrate concentrations (saturations) and gas volumes on the Blake Ridge with electrical resistivity log data. Proceeding of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results 164:179-191.
18. Collett, T., D. Goldberg, A. Janik, and G. Guerin. 2004. Occurrence of gas hydrate and associated freegas accumulations on Hydrate Ridge, Offshore Oregon, USA. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 88(13/Suppl.).
19. Dai, J., H. Xu, F. Snyder, and N. Dutta. 2004. Detection and estimation of gas hydrates using rock physics and seismic inversion: Examples from the northern deepwater Gulf of Mexico. The Leading Edge 23:60-66.
20. Davie, M.K., and B.A. Buffett. 2001. A numerical model for the formation of gas hydrate below the seafloor. Journal of Geophysical Research 106:495-514.
21. Dickens, G.R., J.R. O'Neil, D.C. Rea, and R.M. Owen. 1995. Dissociation of oceanic methane hydrate as a cause of the carbon isotope excursion at the end of the Paleocene. Paleoceanography 10:965-971.
22. Dickens, G.R., C.K. Paull, and P. Wallace. 1997. Direct measurement of in situ methane quantities in a large gas-hydrate reservoir. Nature 385:426-428.
23. Doyle, E.H., S.R. Dallimore, R.A. Fine, A.M. Nur, M.E.Q. Pilson, W.S. Reeburgh, E.D. Sloan Jr., A.M. Tréhu, J. Bintz, J. Merrill, and N. Caputo. 2004. Charting the Future of Methane Hydrate Research in the United States. National Academies Press, Washington D.C., 192 pp.
24. Dugan, B., and P.B. Flemings. 2000. Overpressure and fluid flow in the New Jersey continental slope: Implications for slope failure and cold seeps. Science 289:288-291.
25. Dvorkin, J., and A. Nur. 1993. Rock physics for characterization of gas hydrates. Pp. 293-298 in The Future of Energy Gases. United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 1570. U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.
26. Edwards, R.N. 1997. On the resource evaluation of marine gas hydrate deposits using a seafloor transient electric dipole-dipole method. Geophysics 62:63-74.
27. Egeberg, P.K., and G.R. Dickens, 1999. Thermodynamic and pore water halogen constraints on gas hydrate distribution at ODP Site 997 (Blake Ridge). Chemical Geology 153:53-79.
28. Expedition 311 Scientists. 2005. Cascadia margin gas hydrates. Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Preliminary Report 311:doi:10:2204/iodp.pr.311.2005.
29. Fisher, C.R., I.R. MacDonald, R. Sassen, C.M. Young, S.A. Macko, S. Hourdez, R.S. Carney, S. Joye, and E. McMullin. 2000. Methane ice worms: Hesiocaeca methanicola colonizing fossil fuel reserves. Naturwissenschaften 87:184-187.
30. Ford, K.H., T.H. Naehr, C.G. Skilbeck, and Leg 201 Scientific Party. 2003. The use of infrared thermal imaging to identify gas hydrate in sediment cores. Pp. 1-20 in Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Initial Reports 201, S.L. D'Hondt, B.B. Jørgensen, D.J. Miller, et al., eds. Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX.
31. Ge, S., B.A. Bekins, J. Bredehoeft, K. Brown, E.E. Davis, S.M. Gorelick, P. Henry, H. Kooi, A.F. Moench, C. Ruppel, M. Sauter, E. Screaton, P.K. Swart, T. Tokunaga, C.I. Voss, and F. Whitaker. 2002. Hydrogeology program planning group final report. JOIDES Journal 28(2)24-29.
32. Ginsberg, G., S. Soloviev, T. Matveeva, and I. Andreeva. 2000. Sediment grain size control on gas hydrate presence, Sites 994, 995, and 997. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Scientific Results 164:237-245.
33. Goldberg, D. 1997. The role of downhole measurements in marine geology and geophysics. Reviews of Geophysics 35(3):315-342.
34. Goldberg, D., G. Guerin, A. Janik, and T. Collett. 2004. Heterogeneity and strength of natural gas hydratebearing sediments. In: Proceedings of Gas Hydrates: Energy Resource Potential and Associated Geologic Hazards, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Hedberg Conference, September 12-16, 2004. Vancouver, Canada. [Online] Available at: http://www.searchanddiscovery.com/documents/abstracts/2004hedberg_vancouver/extended/gold-berg/images/goldberg.pdf [last accessed September 8, 2006].
35. Grevemeyer, I., A.J. Kopf, N. Fekete, N. Kaul, H.W. Villinger, M. Heesemann, K. Wallmann, V. Spiess, H-H Gennerich, M. Mueller, and W. Weinrebe. 2004. Fluid flow through an active mud dome Mound Culebra offshore Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica: Evidence from heat flow surveying. Marine Geology 207:145-157.
36. Guerin, G.D., and D. Goldberg. 2002. Sonic waveform attenuation in gas hydrate-bearing sediments from the Mallik2L-38 research well, Mackenzie Delta, Canada. Journal of Geophysical Research 107, doi: 10.1029/2001JB000556.
37. Guerin, G., D. Goldberg, and A. Meltser. 1999. Characterization of in situ elastic properties of gas hydrate-bearing sediments on the Blake Ridge. Journal of Geophysical Research 104(8):17,781-17,795.
38. Haacke, R.R. 2005. A multi-component investigation of seismic anisotropy and gas hydrates in the continental margin west of Svalbard. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom.
39. Handa, Y.P. 1990. Effect of hydrostatic pressure and salinity on the stability of gas hydrates. Journal of Physical Chemistry 94:2,652-2,657.
40. Heeschen, K.U., A.M. Tréhu, R.W. Collier, E. Suess, and G. Rehder. 2003. Distribution and height of methane bubble plumes on the Cascadia margin offshore Oregon from acoustic imaging. Geophysical Research Letters 30:1,643, doi:10.1029/ 2003GL016974.
41. Helgerud, M.B., J. Dvorkin, A. Nur, A. Sakai, and T. Collett. 1999. Elastic-wave velocity in marine sediments with gas hydrates: Effective medium modeling. Geophysical Research Letters 26: 2,021-2,024.
42. Henry, P., M. Thomas, and M.B. Clennell. 1999. Formation of natural gas hydrates in marine sediments: 2. Thermodynamic calculations of stability conditions in porous sediments. Journal of Geophysical Research 104:23,005-23,022.
43. Hesse, R., and W.E. Harrison. 1981. Gas hydrates (clathrates) causing pore-water freshening and oxygen isotope fractionation in deep-water sedimentary sections of terrigenous continental margins. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 55:453-462.
44. Hesslebo, S.P., D.R. Grocke, H.C. Jenkyns, C.J. Bjerrum, P. Farrimond, H.S.M. Bell, and O.R. Green. 2000. Massive dissociation of gas hydrate during a Jurassic oceanic anoxic event. Nature 406: 392-395.
45. Hobro, J.W.D., T.A. Minshull, S.C. Singh, and S. Chand. 2005. A three-dimensional seismic tomographic study of the gas hydrate stability zone, offshore Vancouver Island. Journal of Geophysical Research 110:B09102, doi:10.1029/2004JB003477.
46. Holbrook, W.S., H. Hoskins, W.T. Wood, R.A. Stephen, D. Lizarralde, and Leg 164 Science Party. 1996. Methane hydrate and free gas on the Blake Ridge from vertical seismic profiling. Science 273:1,840-1,843.
47. Hornbach, M.J., C. Ruppel, D.M. Saffer, C.L. Van Dover, and W.S. Holbrook. 2005. Coupled geophysical constraints on heat flow and fluid flux at a salt diapir. Geophysical Research Letters 32, doi:10.1029/ 2005GL024862.
48. Hutchinson, D.R., C.D. Ruppel, J. Pohlman, P.E. Hart, B. Dugan, F. Snyder, and R.B. Coffin. 2004. An integrated geological, geophysical, and geochemical analysis of subsurface gas hydrates in the Northern Gulf of Mexico. In: Proceedings of Gas Hydrates: Energy Resource Potential and Associated Geologic Hazards. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Hedberg Conference, September 12-16, 2004, Vancouver, Canada. [Online] Available at: http://www.searchanddiscovery.net/documents/abstracts/2004hedberg_vancouver/extended/hutchinson/hutchinson.htm [last accessed September 8, 2006].
49. Hyndman, R.D., and E.E. Davis. 1992. A mechanism for the formation of methane hydrate and seafloor bottom-simulating reflectors by vertical fluid expulsion. Journal of Geophysical Research 97:7,025-7,041.
50. Janik, A., D. Goldberg, T. Collett, and Leg 204 Scientific Party. 2003. Azimuthal variability in gas hydrate concentration using LWD resistivity and density images. EOS Transactions, American Geophysical Union 84(46/Suppl.), Abstract OS51C-0875.
51. Johnson, J.E., C. Goldfinger, and E. Suess. 2003. Geophysical constraints on the surface distribution of authigenic carbonates across the Hydrate Ridge region, Cascadia margin. Marine Geology 202:79-110.
52. Kastner, M., G. Claypool, G. Robertson, P. Schultheiss, and M. Holland. 2005. Geochemical evidence for gas hydrates at Atwater Valley and Keathley Canyon, Gulf of Mexico. EOS Transactions, American Geophysical Union 86(52), Abstract OS31D-03.
53. Kennett, J.P., K.G. Cannariato, I.L. Hendy, and R.J. Behl. 2003. Methane Hydrates in Quaternary Climate Change: The Clathrate Gun Hypothesis. American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C., 216 pp.
54. Klaucke, I., M.K. Ivanov, G. Bohrmann, and TTR15-Legs 1 and 2 Scientific Party. 2006. Gas emissions, gas hydrates and oil seeps in the Eastern Black Sea. Geophysical Research Abstracts 8:05883, SRef-ID: 1607-7962/gra/EGU06-A-05883.
55. Korenaga, J., W.S. Holbrook, S.C. Singh, and T.A. Minshull. 1997. Natural gas hydrates on the SE U.S. margin: Constraints from full waveform inversions of wide-angle seismic data. Journal of Geophysical Research 102:15,345-15,365.
56. Kraemer, L.M., R.M. Owen, and G.R. Dickens. 2000. Lithology of the upper gas hydrate zone, Blake Outer Ridge: A link between diatoms, porosity and gas hydrate. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results 164:229-236.
57. Kulm, L.D., E. Suess, J.C. Moore, B. Carson, B.T. Lewis, S.D. Ritger, D.C. Kadko, T.M. Thornburg, R.W. Embley, W.D. Rugh, G.J. Massoth, M.G. Langseth, G.R. Cochrane, and R.L. Scamman. 1986. Oregon subduction zone: Venting, fauna, and carbonates. Science 231:561-566.
58. Kvenvolden, K. 1988. Methane hydrates and climate change. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 2:221-229.
59. Kvenvolden, K.A. 1993. Gas hydrates-Geological perspective and global change. Reviews of Geophysics 31:173-187.
60. Kvenvolden, K.A., and T.D. Lorenson. 2001. The global occurrence of natural gas hydrate. Pp. 3-18 in Natural Gas Hydrates: Occurrence, Distribution, and Detection, C.K. Paull and W.P. Dillon, eds. Geophysical Monograph Series 124. American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C.
61. Liu, X., and P. Flemings. 2006. Passing gas through the gas hydrate stability zone at southern Hydrate Ridge, offshore Oregon. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 241:211-226.
62. Long, P.E., W. Ussler III, J.L. Weinberger, M. Riedel, and A.M. Tréhu. 2004. Quantification of gas hydrate abundance from infrared imaging of subseafloor cores. In: Proceedings of Gas Hydrates: Energy Resource Potential and Associated Geologic Hazards, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Hedberg Conference, September 12-16, 2004. Vancouver, Canada. [Online] Available at: http://www.searchanddiscovery.net/documents/abstracts/2004hedberg_vancouver/extended/long/long.htm [last accessed September 8, 2006].
63. Lorenson, T.D., and Leg 164 Shipboard Scientists. 2000. Graphic summary of gas hydrate occurrence by proxy measurements across the Blake Ridge. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results 164:247-252.
64. Luff, R., I. Klaucke, E. Suess, J. Greinert, and K. Wallmann. 2005. Simulation of long-term feedbacks from authigenic carbonate formation at cold vent sites. Chemical Geology 216:157-174.
65. MacDonald, I.R., G.S. Boland, J.S. Baker, J.M. Brooks, M.C. Kennicutt II, and R.R. Bidigare. 1989. Gulf of Mexico hydrocarbon seep communities II. Spatial distribution of seep organisms and hydrocarbons at Bush Hill. Marine Biology 101:235-247.
66. MacDonald, I.R., N.I. Guinasso, Jr., R. Sassen, J.M. Brooks, L. Lee, and K.T. Scott. 1994. Gas hydrate that breaches the seafloor on the continental slope of the Gulf of Mexico. Geology 22:699-702.
67. MacDonald, I.R., L.C. Bender, M. Vardaro, B. Bernard, and J.M. Brooks. 2005. Thermal and visual time-series at a seafloor gas hydrate deposit on the Gulf of Mexico slope. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 233:45-59.
68. MacKay, M.E., R.D. Jarrad, G.K. Westbrook, R.D. Hyndman, and Shipboard Scientific Party. 1994. ODP Leg 146, Origin of BSRs: Geophysical evidence from the Cascadia accretionary prism. Geology 22:459-462.
69. Martin, J.B., M. Kastner, P.K. Egeberg. 1995. Origins of saline fluids at convergent margins. Pp. 219-240 in Active margins and marginal basins of the western Pacific, B. Taylor, J. Natland, eds., Geophysical Monograph Series 88, American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C.
70. Maslin, M., M. Owen, S. Day, and D. Long. 2004. Linking continental slope failures and climate change: Testing the clathrate gun hypothesis. Geology 32:53-56.
71. Maslin, M.A., and E. Thomas. 2003. Balancing the deglacial global carbon budget: the hydrate factor. Quaternary Science Reviews 22: 1,729-1,736.
72. Mathews, M. 1986. Logging characteristics of methane hydrate. The Log Analyst 27:26-63.
73. Mathews, M.A., and R. von Huene. 1985. Site 570 methane hydrate zone. Pp. 773-790 in Initial reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project covering Leg 84 of the cruises of the Drilling Vessel Glomar Challenger; Balboa, Panama, to Manzanillo, Mexico, January-February 1982, R. Von Huene, J. Aubouin, et al., eds. Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX.
74. Mienert, J., M. Vanneste, S. Bünz, K. Andreassen, H. Haflidason, and H.-P. Sejrup. 2005. Ocean warming and gas hydrate stability on the mid-Norwegian margin at the Storegga Slide. Marine and Petroleum Geology 22:233-244.
75. Milkov, A.V. 2005. Molecular and stable isotope composition of natural gas hydrates: A revised global dataset and basic interpretations in the context of geological settings. Organic Geochemistry 36(5):681-702.
76. Milkov, A.V., and W. Xu. 2005. Comment on "Gas hydrate growth, methane transport, and chloride enrichment at the southern summit of Hydrate Ridge, Cascadia margin of Oregon" by Torres et al. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 239:162-167.
77. Milkov, A.V., G.E. Claypool, Y.-J. Lee, G.R. Dickens, W. Xu, W.S. Borowski, and Leg 204 Science Party. 2003. In situ methane concentrations at Hydrate Ridge offshore Oregon: New constraints on the global gas inventory from an active margin. Geology 30:833-836.
78. Milkov, A.V., G.R. Dickens, G.E. Claypool, Y.-J. Lee, W.S. Borowski, M.E. Torres, W. Xu, H. Tomaru, A.M. Tréhu, P. Schultheiss, N.L. Bangs, S.R. Barr, T.S. Collett, M.E. Delwiche, D.S. Goldberg, E. Gracia, G. Guerin, M. Holland, J.E. Johnson, C-S. Liu, P.E. Long, F.R. Rack, M. Riedel, X. Su, B.M.A. Teichert, M. Vanneste, M. Watanabe, and J.L. Weinberger. 2004a. Co-existence of gas hydrate, free gas, and brine within the gas hydrate stability zone at the southern summit of Hydrate Ridge (Oregon margin): Evidence from prolonged degassing of a pressurized core. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 222(3-4):829-843.
79. Milkov, A.V., G.E. Claypool, Y.-J. Lee, M.E. Torres, W.S. Borowski, H. Tomaru, R. Sassen, P. Long, and the ODP Leg 204 Scientific Party. 2004b. Ethane enrichment, propane depletion, and other compositional variations in subsurface gases: A new indicator of gas hydrate occurrence in marine sediments. Organic Geochemistry 35:1,067-1,080.
80. Nimblett, J., and C. Ruppel. 2003. Permeability evolution during the formation of gas hydrates in marine sediments. Journal of Geophysical Research 108: doi:10.1029/2001JB001650.
81. Orphan, V.J., C.H. House, K.-U. Hinrichs, K.D. Mckeegan, and E.F. deLong. 2001a. Methane-consuming archaea revealed by directly coupled isotopic and phylogenetic analyses. Science 293:484-487.
82. Orphan, V.J., K.-U. Hinrichs, W. Ussler III, C.K. Paull, S.P. Taylor, S.P. Sylva, J.M. Hayes, and E.F. deLong. 2001b. Comparative analysis of methane-oxidizing archaea and sulfate reducing bacteria in anoxic marine sediments. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67(4):1,922-1,934.
83. Ostrander, W.J. 1984. Plane-wave reflection coefficients for gas sands at nonnormal angles of incidence. Geophysics 49:1,637-1,649.
84. Paull, C.K., W. Ussler III, and W.P. Dillon. 1991. Is the extent of glaciation limited by marine gas hydrates? Geophysical Research Letters 18:432-434.
85. Paull, C.K., R. Matsumoto, P.J. Wallace, et al. 1996. In: Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Initial Reports 164, Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX.
86. Pecher, I.A., C R. Ranero, R. von Huene, T.A. Minshull, and S.C. Singh. 1998. The nature and distribution of bottom simulating reflectors at the Costa Rican convergent margin. Geophysical Journal International 133:219-229.
87. Pecher, I.A., N. Kukowski, C.R. Ranero, and R. von Huene. 2001. Gas hydrates along the Peru and Middle America trench systems. Pp. 257-271 in Natural Gas Hydrates: Occurrence, Distribution, and Detection. Geophysical Monograph Series 124. C.K. Paull and W.P. Dillon, eds, American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C.
88. 12C) and D/H) and molecular composition of hydrate and vent gas. Organic Geochemistry 36:703-716.
89. Rempel, A.W., and B.A. Buffett. 1998. Mathematical models of gas hydrate accumulation. Pp. 63-74 in Gas Hydrates: Relevance to World Margin Stability and Climate Change, J.P. Henriet and J. Mienert, eds. Special Publication 137. Geological Society of London, United Kingdom.
90. Riedel, M., R.D. Hyndman, G.D. Spence, and N.R. Chapman. 2002. Seismic investigations of a vent field associated with gas hydrates, Offshore Vancouver Island. Journal of Geophysical Research 107(B9):2,200, doi: 10.1029/2001JB000269
91. Riedel, M., T.S. Collett, and R.D. Hyndman. 2005. Gas Hydrate Concentration Estimates from Chlorinity, Electrical Resistivity and Seismic Velocity. Geological Survey of Canada Open File Report 4934, 28 pp.
92. Roberts, H.H., and R. Carney. 1997. Evidence of episodic fluid, gas, and sediment venting on the northern Gulf of Mexico slope. Economic Geology 92:863-879.
93. Roberts, H.H., B.A. Hardage, W.W. Shedd, and J. Hunt, Jr. 2006. Seafloor reflectivity-An important seismic property for interpreting fluid/gas expulsion geology and the presence of gas hydrates. The Leading Edge 25:620-628.
94. Rowe, M.M. and J.F. Gettrust 1993. Fine structure of hydrate-bearing sediments on the Blake Outer Ridge determined from deep-tow multichannel seismic data. Journal of Geophysical Research 98:463-473.
95. Ruppel, C. 1997. Anomalously cold temperatures observed at the base of the gas hydrate stability zone, U.S. Atlantic passive margin. Geology 25:699-702.
96. Ruppel, C. 2000. Thermal state of the gas hydrate reservoir. Pp. 29-42 in Natural Gas Hydrate in Oceanic and Permafrost Environments, M.D. Max, ed. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
97. Ruppel, C., G.R. Dickens, D.G. Castellini, W. Gilhooly, and D. Lizarralde. 2005. Heat and salt inhibition of gas hydrate formation in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Geophysical Research Letters 32: doi:10.1029/2004GL021909.
98. Santamarina, J.C., F. Francisca, T.-S. Yun, J.-Y. Lee, A.I. Martin, and C. Ruppel. 2004. Mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties of hydrate-bearing sediments. In: Proceedings of Gas Hydrates: Energy Resource Potential and Associated Geologic Hazards, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Hedberg Conference, September 12-16, 2004. Vancouver, Canada. [Online] Available at: http://www.searchanddiscovery.net/documents/abstracts/2004hedberg_vancouver/extended/santamarina/images/santamarina.pdf [last accessed September 8, 2006].
99. Sassen, R., S.T. Sweet, A.V. Milkov, D.A. DeFreitas, and M.C. Kennicutt, II. 2001. Stability of thermogenic gas hydrate in the Gulf of Mexico: Constraints on models of climate change. Pp. 131-144 in Natural Gas Hydrates: Occurrence, Distribution, and Detection, C.K. Paull, and W.P. Dillon, eds. American Geophysical Union Geophysical Monograph Series 124.
100. Schultheiss, P.J., T.J.G. Francis, M. Holland, J.A. Roberts, H. Amann, Thjunjoto, R.J. Parkes., D. Martin, M. Rothfuss, F. Tyunder, and P.D. Jackson. 2006. Pressure coring, logging and sub-sampling with the HYACINTH system. Pp. 151-165 in New Ways of Looking at Sediment Cores and Core Data, R.G. Rothwell, ed. Special Publications 267. Geological Society, London.
101. Shipboard Scientific Party. 2003. Leg 204 summary. Pp. 1-75 in Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Initial Reports, 204, A. M. Tre ́hu, G. Bohrmann, F.R. Rack, M.E. Torres, et al. Ocean Drilling Program, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX.
102. Shipley, T.H., M.H. Houston, R.T. Buffler, F.J. Shaub, K.J. McMillen, J.W. Ladd, and J.L. Worzel. 1979. Seismic reflection evidence for the widespread occurrence of possible gas-hydrate horizons on continental slopes and rises. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 63:2,204-2,213.
103. Singh, S.C., T.A. Minshull, and G.D. Spence. 1993. Velocity structure of a gas hydrate reflector. Science 260:204-207.
104. Sloan, E.D. 1998. Clathrate Hydrates of Natural Gases. 2nd ed. Marcel Dekker Inc. Publishers, New York, 705 pp.
105. Sowers, T. 2006. Late Quaternary atmospheric CH4 isotope record suggests marine clathrates are stable. Science 311: 838-840.
106. Spence, G.D., T.A. Minshull, and C. Fink. 1995. Seismic structure of methane gas hydrate, offshore Vancouver Island. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results 146:163-174.
107. Spence, G.D., N.R. Chapman, R.D. Hyndman, and D. Cleary. 2001. Fishing Trawler Nets Massive Catch of Methane hydrates. EOS Transactions, American Geophysical Union 82(50):621-627.
108. Suess, E., M.E. Torres, G. Bohrmann, R.W. Collier, D. Rickert, C. Goldfinger, P. Linke, A. Heuser, H. Sahling, K. Heeschen, C. Jung, K. Nakamura, J. Greinert, O. Pfannkuche, A. Tréhu, G. Klinkhammer, M.J. Whiticar, A. Eisenhauer, B. Teichert, and M. Elvert. 2001. Sea floor methane hydrates at Hydrate Ridge, Cascadia margin. Pp. 87-98 in Natural Gas Hydrates: Occurrence, Distribution, and Detection, C.K. Paull and W.P. Dillon, eds. Geophysical Monograph Series 124. American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C.
109. Takahashi, H., and Y. Tsuji. 2005. Multi-well exploration program in 2004 for natural hydrate in the Nankai trough, offshore Japan. Abstract 17162 in Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference, May 2-5, 2005, Houston, TX.
110. Tinivella, U., and F. Accaino. 2000. Compressional velocity structure and Poisson's ratio in marine sediments with gas hydrate and free gas by inversion of reflected and refracted seismic data (South Shetland Islands, Antarctica). Marine Geology 164:13-27.
111. Torres, M.E., J. McManus, et al. 2002. Fluid and chemical fluxes in and out of sediments hosting methane hydrate deposits on Hydrate Ridge, OR: I. Hydrological provinces. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 20:525-540.
112. Torres, M.E., K. Wallmann, A.M. Tréhu, G. Bohrmann, W.S. Borowski, and H. Tomaru. 2005. Reply to comment on: "Gas hydrate growth, methane transport and chloride enrichment at the southern summit of Hydrate Ridge, Cascadia margin off Oregon." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 239:168-175.
113. Torres, M.E., K. Wallmann, A.M. Tréhu, G. Bohrmann, W.S. Borowski, and H. Tomaru. 2004a. Gas hydrate dynamics at the Hydrate Ridge southern summit based on dissolved chloride data. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 226:225-241.
114. Torres, M.E., B. Teichert, A.M. Tréhu, W. Borowski, and H. Tomaru. 2004b. Relationship of pore-water freshening to accretionary processes in the Cascadia margin: Fluid sources and gas hydrate abundance. Geophysical Research Letters 31:L22305, doi:10.1029/2004GL021219.
115. Tréhu, A.M. In press. Subsurface temperatures beneath southern Hydrate Ridge. ODP Leg 204, Hydrate Ridge. In: Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 204, A. Tréhu, G. Bohrmann F.S. Colwell, and M. Torres, eds., [Online] Available at: http://www-odp.tamu.eu/pub-lications/204_SR/204TOC.HTM [last accessed September 8, 2006].
116. Tréhu, A.M., P. Flemings, N. Bangs, J. Chevallier, E. Gracia, J. Johnson, M. Riedel, C.-S. Liu, X. Liu, M. Riedel, and M.E. Torres. 2004a. Feeding methane vents and gas hydrate deposits at south Hydrate Ridge. Geophysical Research Letters 31:L23310, doi:10.1029/2004GL021286.
117. Tréhu, A.M., G. Bohrman, F.R. Rack, T.S. Collett, D.S. Goldberg, P.E. Long, A.V. Milkov, M. Riedel, P. Schultheiss, M.E. Tores, N.L. Bangs, S.R. Barr, W.S. Borowski, G.E. Claypool, M.E. Delwiche, G.R. Dickens, E. Gracia, G. Guerin, M. Holland, J.E. Johnson, Y.-J. Lee, C.-S. Liu, X. SU, B. Teichert, H. Tomaru, M. Vanneste, M. Watanabe, and J.L. Weinberger. 2004b. Three-dimensional distribution of gas hydrate beneath southern Hydrate Ridge: Constraints from ODP Leg 204. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 222:845-862.
118. Tréhu, A.M., N.L. Bangs, and G. Guerin. 2006. Nearoffset vertical seismic experiments during Leg 204. In: Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 204, A. Tréhu, G. Bohrmann F.S. Colwell, and M. Torres, eds. [Online] Available at: http://www-odp.tamu.edu/publications/204_SR/120/120.htm [last accessed September 8, 2006].
119. Tryon, M., K.M. Brown, and M.E. Torres. 2002. Fluid and chemical fluxes in and out of sediments hosting methane hydrate deposits on Hydrate Ridge, OR: II. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 20:541-550.
120. Tucholke, B.E., G.M. Bryan, and J.I. Ewing. 1977. Gas hydrate horizons detected in seismic-profiler data from the western North Atlantic. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 61:698-707.
121. Ussler III, W., and C.K. Paull. 2001. Ion Exclusion associated with marine gas hydrate deposits. Pp. 41-65 in Natural Gas Hydrates: Occurrence, Distribution, and Detection, C.K. Paull and W.P. Dillon, eds. Geophysical Monograph Series 124. American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C.
122. Van Dover, C.L., P. Aharon, J.M. Bernhard, E. Caylor, M. Doerries, W. Flickinger, W. Gilhooly, S.K. Goffredi, K. Knick, S.A. Macko, S. Rapoport, E.C. Raulfs, C. Ruppel, J. Salerno, R.D. Seitz, B.K. Sen Gupta, T. Shank, M. Turpinseed, and R. Vrijenhoek. 2003. Blake Ridge methane seeps: Characterization of a soft-sediment, chemosynthetically based ecosystem. Deep Sea Research I 50:281-300.
123. Vogt, P.R., G. Cherkashev, G. Ginsburg, G. Ivanov, A. Milkov, K. Crane, A. Lein, E. Sundvor, N. Pimenov, and A. Egorov. 1997. Haakon Mosby mud volcano provides unusual example of venting. EOS Transactions, American Geophysical Union 78:556-557.
124. Weinberger, J.L., K.M. Brown, and P.E. Long. 2005. Painting a picture of gas hydrate distribution with thermal images. Geophysical Research Letters 32: L04609, doi:10.1029/2004GL021437.
125. Weinberger, J.L., and K.M. Brown. 2006. Fracture networks and hydrate distribution at Hydrate Ridge, Oregon. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 245:123-136.
126. Weitemeyer, K.A., S.C. Constable, K.W. Key, and J.P. Behrens. 2005. First results from a marine controlled-source electromagnetic survey to detect gas hydrates offshore Oregon. Geophysical Research Letters 33:L03304, doi:10.1029/2005GL024896.
127. Wellsbury, P., K. Goodman, B.A. Cragg, and R.J. Parkes. 2000. The geomicrobiology of deep marine sediments from Blake Ridge containing methane hydrate (Sites 994, 995 and 997). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program 164:379-391.
128. Westbrook, G.K., S. Buenz, A. Camerlenghi, J. Carcione, S. Chand, S. Dean, J.P. Foucher, E. Flueh, D. Gei, R. Haacke, F. Klingelhoefer, C. Long, G. Madrussani, J. Mienert, T.A. Minshull, H. Nouz ́e, S. Peacock, G. Rossi, E. Roux, T. Reston, M. Vanneste, and M. Zillmer. 2005. Measurement of Pand S-wave velocities, and the estimation of hydrate concentration at sites in the continental margin of Svalbard and the Storegga region of Norway. Pp. 726-735 in Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Gas Hydrates, Volume 3, Exploration, Resources and Environment, June 13-15, 2005, Trondheim, Norway.
129. Willoughby, E.C., and R.N. Edwards. 1997. On the resource evaluation of marine gas-hydrate deposits using seafloor compliance methods. Geophysical Journal International 131:751-766.
130. Willoughby, E.C., K. Schwalenberg, R.N. Edwards, G.D. Spence, and R.D. Hyndman. 2005. Assessment of marine gas hydrate deposits: A comparative study of seismic, electromagnetic and seafloor compliance methods. Pp. 8,002-8,011 in Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Gas Hydrates, Volume 3, Exploration, Resources and Environment, June 13-15, 2005, Trondheim, Norway.
131. Wilson, A., and C. Ruppel. 2005. Impact of shallow convection on the gas hydrate reservoir in the Gulf of Mexico salt tectonics province. EOS Transactions, American Geophysical Union 86(52), Abstract OS41-06.
132. Wood, W.T., and C. Ruppel. 2000. Seismic and thermal investigations of the Blake Ridge gas hydrate area: A synthesis. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results 164:253-264.
133. Wood, W.T., J.F. Gettrust, N.R. Chapman, G.D. Spence, and R.D. Hyndman. 2002. Decreased stability of methane hydrates in marine sediments owing to phase-boundary roughness. Nature 420:656-660.
134. Xu, W. 2004. Modeling dynamic marine gas hydrate systems. American Mineralogist 89:1,271-1,279.
135. Xu, W., and C. Ruppel. 1999. Predicting the occurrence, distribution, and evolution of methane gas hydrate in porous marine sediments. Journal of Geophysical Research 104:5,081-5,095.
136. Yuan, J., and R.N. Edwards. 2000. Towed seafloor electromagnetics and assessment of gas hydrate deposits. Geophysical Research Letters 27:2,397-2,400.
137. Yuan, T., G.D. Spence, R.D. Hyndman, T.A. Minshull, and S.C. Singh. 1999. Seismic velocity studies of a gas hydrate bottom-simulating reflector on the northern Cascadia continental margin: amplitude modeling and full waveform inversion. Journal of Geophysical Research 104:1,179-1,191.
138. Yun, T.S, F.M. Francisca, J.C. Santamarina, and C. Ruppel. 2005. Compressional and shear wave velocities in uncemented sediment containing gas hydrate. Geophysical Research Letters 32, doi:10.1029/2005GL022607.
139. Yun, T.S., G. Narsilio, J.C. Santamarina, and C. Ruppel. 2006. Instrumented pressure testing chamber for characterizing sediment cores recovered at in situ hydrostatic pressure. Marine Geology 229:285-293.
140. Zwart, G., J.C. Moore, and G.R. Cochrane. 1996. Variations in temperature gradients identify active faults in the Oregon accretionary prism. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 139:485-395.