Course of Disease and Clinical Management

Handbook of Meningococcal Disease: Infection Biology, Vaccination, Clinical Management

Volumn , Issue , 2006, Pages 481-517

  Pollard, Andrew J ^a   Nadel, Simon ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

^b ST MARY S HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Adjunctive therapy for sepsis; Antibiotic therapy; Cardiovascular shock; Carriage; Clinical management; Course of disease; Disease burden; Initial assessment and management; Lumbar puncture; Presentation and clinical features

Indexed keywords

EID: 34250827409     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/3527608508.ch22     Document Type: Chapter

References (201)

1. Vieusseaux G. 1805, Memoire sur le maladie qui a régné a Genêve au printemps de 1805, J Med Chir Pharm 2, 163-165.
2. Danielson L, Mann E. 1806, The history of a singular and very mortal disease, which lately made its appearance in Medfield, Med Agric Reg 1, 65.
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2000, Serogroup W-135 meningococcal disease among travelers returning from Saudi Arabia to United States, 2000, Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 49, 345-346.
4. Lapeyssonnie L. 1963, La meningite cerebro-spinale en Afrique, Bull WHO 28[Suppl.], 3-114.
5. Wang JF, Caugant DA, Li X, Hu X, Poolman JT, Crowe BA, et al. 1992, Clonal and antigenic analysis of serogroup A Neisseria meningitidis with particular reference to epidemiological features of epidemic meningitis in the People's Republic of China, Infect Immun 60, 5267-5282.
6. Decosas J, Koama JB. 2002, Chronicle of an outbreak foretold: meningococcal meningitis W135 in Burkina Faso, Lancet Infect Dis 2, 763-765.
7. Ninis N, Phillips C, Bailey L, Pollock JI, Nadel S, Britto J, et al. 2005, The role of healthcare delivery in the outcome of meningococcal disease in children: casecontrol study of fatal and non-fatal cases, BMJ 330, 1475.
8. Booy R, Habibi P, Nadel S, de Munter C, Britto J, Morrison A, et al. 2001, Reduction in case fatality rate from meningococcal disease associated with improved healthcare delivery, Arch Dis Child 85, 386-390.
9. Thorburn K, Baines P, Thomson A, Hart CA. 2001, Mortality in severe meningococcal disease, Arch Dis Child 85, 382-385.
10. Bryce J, Boschi-Pinto C, Shibuya K, Black RE. 2005, WHO estimates of the causes of death in children, Lancet 365, 1147-1152.
11. Tikhomirov E, Santamaria M, Esteves K. 1997, Meningococcal disease: public health burden and control, World Health Stat Q 50, 170-177.
12. Mulholland K. 1999, Strategies for the control of pneumococcal diseases, Vaccine 17[Suppl.], S79-S84.
13. Rosenstein NE, Perkins BA, Stephens DS, Lefkowitz L, Cartter ML, Danila R, et al. 1999, The changing epidemiology of meningococcal disease in the United States, 1992-1996, J Infect Dis 180, 1894-1901.
14. Pollard AJ, Scheifele D. 2001, Meningococcal disease and vaccination in North America, J Paediatr Child Health 37, 20-27.
15. Hausdorff WP, Bryant J, Paradiso PR, Siber GR. 2000, Which pneumococcal serogroups cause the most invasive disease: implications for conjugate vaccine formulation and use, part I, Clin Infect Dis 30, 100-121.
16. Offit PA, Peter G. 2003, The meningococcal vaccine-public policy and individual choices, N Engl J Med 349, 2353-2356.
17. Public Health Laboratory Service 1997, Bacterial meningitis in Europe: surveillance report for 1995, Commun Dis Rep CDR Wkly 7, 119, 122.
18. Goldschneider I, Gotschlich EC, Artenstein MS. 1969, Human immunity to the meningococcus, II. Development of natural immunity, J Exp Med 129, 1327-1348.
19. Peltola H, Kataja JM, Mäkelä PH. 1982, Shift in the age-distribution of meningococcal disease as predictor of an epidemic? Lancet 2, 595-597.
20. Whalen CM, Hockin JC, Ryan A, Ashton F. 1995, The changing epidemiology of invasive meningococcal disease in Canada, 1985 through 1992, Emergence of a virulent clone of Neisseria meningitidis, JAMA 273, 390-394.
21. Kaczmarski EB. 1997, Meningococcal disease in England and Wales: 1995, Commun Dis Rep CDR Rev 7, R55-R59.
22. Greenwood B. 1987, The epidemiology of acute bacterial meningitis in tropical Africa, in Bacterial Meningitis, 1st edn, Academic Press, London, p. 61-91.
23. De Wals P, Hertoghe L, Borlee-Grimee I, De Maeyer-Cleempoel S, Reginster-Haneuse G, Dachy A, et al. 1981, Meningococcal disease in Belgium. Secondary attack rate among household, day-care nursery and pre-elementary school contacts, J Infect 3[Suppl.], 53-61.
24. Moodley JR, Coetzee N, Hussey G. 1999, Risk factors for meningococcal disease in Cape Town, S Afr Med J 89, 56-59.
25. Baker M, McNicholas A, Garrett N, Jones N, Stewart J, Koberstein V, et al. 2000, Household crowding a major risk factor for epidemic meningococcal disease in Auckland children, Pediatr Infect Dis J 19, 983-990.
26. Berild D, Gedde-Dahl TW, Abrahamsen T. 1980, Meningococcal disease in the Norwegian armed forces 1967-1979, Some epidemiological aspects, NIPH Ann 3, 23-30.
27. Neal KR, Nguyen-Van-Tam J, Monk P, O'Brien SJ, Stuart J, Ramsay M. 1999, Invasive meningococcal disease among university undergraduates: association with universities providing relatively large amounts of catered hall accommodation, Epidemiol Infect 122, 351-357.
28. Yusuf HR, Rochat RW, Baughman WS, Gargiullo PM, Perkins BA, Brantley MD, et al. 1999, Maternal cigarette smoking and invasive meningococcal disease: a cohort study among young children in metropolitan Atlanta, 1989-1996, Am J Public Health 89, 712-717.
29. Fischer M, Hedberg K, Cardosi P, Plikaytis BD, Hoesly FC, Steingart KR, et al. 1997, Tobacco smoke as a risk factor for meningococcal disease, Pediatr Infect Dis J 16, 979-983.
30. Cartwright KA, Jones DM, Smith AJ, Stuart JM, Kaczmarski EB, Palmer SR. 1991, Influenza A and meningococcal disease, Lancet 338, 554-557.
31. Fijen CA, Kuijper EJ, Hannema AJ, Sjöholm AG, van Putten JP. 1989, Complement deficiencies in patients over ten years old with meningococcal disease due to uncommon serogroups, Lancet 2, 585-588.
32. Nielsen HE, Koch C, Magnussen P, Lind I. 1989, Complement deficiencies in selected groups of patients with meningococcal disease, Scand J Infect Dis 21, 389-396.
33. Salit IE. 1981, Meningococcemia caused by serogroup W135. Association with hypogammaglobulinemia, Arch Intern Med 141, 664-665.
34. Locker GJ, Wagner A, Peter A, Staudinger T, Marosi C, Rintelen C, et al. 1995, Lethal Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome in posttraumatic asplenia, J Trauma 39, 784-786.
35. Emonts M, Hazelzet JA, de Groot R, Hermans PW. 2003, Host genetic determinants of Neisseria meningitidis infections, Lancet Infect Dis 3, 565-577.
36. Maiden MC, Stuart JM. 2002, Carriage of serogroup C meningococci 1 year after meningococcal C conjugate polysaccharide vaccination, Lancet 359, 1829-1831.
37. Caugant DA, Høiby EA, Magnus P, Scheel O, Hoel T, Bjune G, et al. 1994, Asymptomatic carriage of Neisseria meningitidis in a randomly sampled population, J Clin Microbiol 32, 323-330.
38. Gold R, Goldschneider I, Lepow ML, Draper TF, Randolph M. 1978, Carriage of Neisseria meningitidis and Neisseria lactamica in infants and children, J Infect Dis 137, 112-121.
39. Andersen J, Berthelsen L, Bech Jensen B, Lind I. 1998, Dynamics of the meningococcal carrier state and characteristics of the carrier strains: a longitudinal study within three cohorts of military recruits, Epidemiol Infect 121, 85-94.
40. Ala'Aldeen DA, Neal KR, Ait-Tahar K, Nguyen-Van-Tam JS, English A, Falla TJ, et al. 2000, Dynamics of meningococcal long-term carriage among university students and their implications for mass vaccination, J Clin Microbiol 38, 2311-2316.
41. Marzouk O, Thomson AP, Sills JA, Hart CA, Harris F. 1991, Features and outcome in meningococcal disease presenting with maculopapular rash, Arch Dis Child 66, 485-487.
42. Edwards KM, Jones LM, Stephens DS. 1985, Clinical features of mild systemic meningococcal disease with characterization of bacterial isolates, Clin Pediatr 24, 617-620.
43. Kirsch EA, Barton RP, Kitchen L, Giroir BP. 1996, Pathophysiology, treatment and outcome of meningococcemia: a review and recent experience, Pediatr Infect Dis J 15, 967-978.
44. Havens PL, Garland JS, Brook MM, Dewitz BA, Stremski ES, Troshynski TJ. 1989, Trends in mortality in children hospitalized with meningococcal infections, 1957 to 1987, Pediatr Infect Dis J 8, 8-11.
45. Lodder MC, Schildkamp RL, Bijlmer HA, Dankert J, Kuik DJ, Scholten RJ. 1996, Prognostic indicators of the outcome of meningococcal disease: a study of 562 patients, J Med Microbiol 45, 16-20.
46. Bigham JM, Hutcheon ME, Patrick DM, Pollard AJ. 2001, Death from invasive meningococcal disease following close contact with a case of primary meningococcal conjunctivitis-Langley, British Columbia, 1999, Can Commun Dis Rep 27, 13-18.
47. Chien SY, Sung TC, Mu SC, Hu CC. 1999, Endophthalmitis as a complication of meningococcal meningitis: report of one case, Chung Hua Min Kuo Hsiao Erh Ko I Hsueh Hui Tsa Chih 40, 116-118.
48. Dillon M, Nourse C, Dowling F, Deasy P, Butler K. 1997, Primary meningococcal arthritis, Pediatr Infect Dis J 16, 331-332.
49. Edwards MS, Baker CJ. 1981, Complications and sequelae of meningococcal infections in children, J Pediatr 99, 540-545.
50. Nadel S, Levin M, Habibi P. 1995, Treatment of meningococcal disease in childhood, in Meningococcal Disease, ed. Cartwright K, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, p. 207-243.
51. Mandl KD, Stack AM, Fleisher GR. 1997, Incidence of bacteremia in infants and children with fever and petechiae, J Pediatr 131, 398-404.
52. Baker RC, Seguin JH, Leslie N, Gilchrist MJ, Myers MG. 1989, Fever and petechiae in children, Pediatrics 84, 1051-1055.
53. Van Nguyen Q, Nguyen EA, Weiner LB. 1984, Incidence of invasive bacterial disease in children with fever and petechiae, Pediatrics 74, 77-80.
54. Nadel S, Britto J, Booy R, Maconochie I, Habibi P, Levin M. 1998, Avoidable deficiencies in the delivery of health care to children with meningococcal disease, J Accid Emerg Med 15, 298-303.
55. Pollard AJ, DeMunter C, Nadel S, Levin M. 1997, Abandoning empirical antibiotics for febrile children, Lancet 350, 811-812.
56. Stiehm ER, Damrosch DS. 1966, Factors in the prognosis of meningococcal infection, review of 63 cases with emphasis on recognition and management of the severely ill patient, J Pediatr 68, 457-467.
57. Perkins MD, Mirrett S, Reller LB. 1995, Rapid bacterial antigen detection is not clinically useful, J Clin Microbiol 33, 1486-1491.
58. Kaczmarski EB, Ragunathan PL, Marsh J, Gray SJ, Guiver M. 1998, Creating a national service for the diagnosis of meningococcal disease by polymerase chain reaction, Commun Dis Public Health 1, 54-56.
59. Cartwright K, Kroll S. 1997, Optimising the investigation of meningococcal disease, BMJ 315, 757-758.
60. Pollard AJ, Probe G, Trombley C, Castell A, Whitehead S, Bigham JM, et al. 2002, Evaluation of a diagnostic polymerase chain reaction assay for Neisseria meningitidis in North America and field experience during an outbreak, Arch Pathol Lab Med 126, 1209-1215.
61. Carrol ED, Thomson AP, Shears P, Gray SJ, Kaczmarski EB, Hart CA. 2000, Performance characteristics of the polymerase chain reaction assay to confirm clinical meningococcal disease, Arch Dis Child 83, 271-273.
62. Corless CE, Guiver M, Borrow R, Edwards-Jones V, Fox AJ, Kaczmarski EB. 2001, Simultaneous DETECTION of Neisseria meningitidis, Haemophilus influenzae, and Streptococcus pneumoniae in suspected cases of meningitis and septicemia using real-time PCR, J Clin Microbiol 39, 1553-1558.
63. Newcombe J, Cartwright K, Palmer WH, McFadden J. 1996, PCR of peripheral blood for diagnosis of meningococcal disease, J Clin Microbiol 34, 1637-1640.
64. Guiver M, Borrow R, Marsh J, Gray SJ, Kaczmarski EB, Howells D, et al. 2000, Evaluation of the Applied Biosystems automated Taqman polymerase chain reaction system for the detection of meningococcal DNA, FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 28, 173-179.
65. Taha MK. 2000, Simultaneous approach for nonculture PCR-based identification and serogroup prediction of Neisseria meningitidis, J Clin Microbiol 38, 855-857.
66. Knight AI, Ni H, Cartwright KA, McFadden JJ. 1992, Identification and characterization of a novel insertion sequence, IS1106, downstream of the porA gene in B15 Neisseria meningitidis, Mol Microbiol 6, 1565-1573.
67. Ni H, Knight AI, Cartwright K, Palmer WH, McFadden J. 1992, Polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of meningococcal meningitis, Lancet 340, 1432-1434.
68. Borrow R, Guiver M, Sadler F, Kaczmarski EB, Fox AJ. 1998, False positive diagnosis of meningococcal infection by the IS1106 PCR ELISA, FEMS Microbiol Lett 162, 215-218.
69. McLaughlin GL, Howe DK, Biggs DR, Smith AR, Ludwinski P, Fox BC, et al. 1993, Amplification of rDNA loci to detect and type Neisseria meningitidis and other eubacteria, Mol Cell Probes 7, 7-17.
70. Radstrom P, Backman A, Qian N, Kragsbjerg P, Pahlson C, Olcen P. 1994, Detection of bacterial DNA in cerebrospinal fluid by an assay for simultaneous detection of Neisseria meningitidis, Haemophilus influenzae, and streptococci using a seminested PCR strategy, J Clin Microbiol 32, 2738-2744.
71. Kotilainen P, Jalava J, Meurman O, Lehtonen OP, Rintala E, Seppälä OP, et al. 1998, Diagnosis of meningococcal meningitis by broad-range bacterial PCR with cerebrospinal fluid [in process citation]. J Clin Microbiol 36, 2205-2209.
72. Seward RJ, Towner KJ. 2000, Evaluation of a PCR-immunoassay technique for detection of Neisseria meningitidis in cerebrospinal fluid and peripheral blood, J Med Microbiol 49, 451-456.
73. Greisen K, Loeffelholz M, Purohit A, Leong D. 1994, PCR primers and probes for the 16S rRNA gene of most species of pathogenic bacteria, including bacteria found in cerebrospinal fluid, J Clin Microbiol 32, 335-351.
74. Ley BE, Linton CJ, Longhurst S, Jalal H, Millar MR. 1997, Eubacterial approach to the diagnosis of bacterial infection, Arch Dis Child 77, 148-149.
75. Kristiansen BE, Ask E, Jenkins A, Fermer C, Radstrom P, Skold O. 1991, Rapid diagnosis of meningococcal meningitis by polymerase chain reaction, Lancet 337, 1568-1569.
76. Saunders NB, Zollinger WD, Rao VB. 1993, A rapid and sensitive PCR strategy employed for amplification and sequencing of porA from a single colony-forming unit of Neisseria meningitidis, Gene 137, 153-162.
77. Saunders NB, Shoemaker DR, Brandt BL, Zollinger WD. 1997, Confirmation of suspicious cases of meningococcal meningitis by PCR and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, J Clin Microbiol 35, 3215-3219.
78. Caugant DA, Høiby EA, Frøholm LO, Brandtzg P. 1996, Polymerase chain reaction for case ascertainment of meningococcal meningitis: application to the cerebrospinal fluids collected in the course of the Norwegian meningococcal serogroup B protection trial, Scand J Infect Dis 28, 149-153
79. de Filippis I, do Nascimento CR, Clementino MB, Sereno AB, Rebelo C, Souza NN, et al. 2005, Rapid detection of Neisseria meningitidis in cerebrospinal fluid by one-step polymerase chain reaction of the nspA gene, Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 51, 85-90.
80. Borrow R, Claus H, Chaudhry U, Guiver M, Kaczmarski EB, Frosch M, et al. 1998, siaD PCR ELISA for confirmation and identification of serogroup Y and W135 meningococcal infections, FEMS Microbiol Lett 159, 209-214.
81. Borrow R, Claus H, Guiver M, Smart L, Jones DM, Kaczmarski EB, et al. 1997, Non-culture diagnosis and serogroup determination of meningococcal B and C infection by a sialyltransferase (siaD) PCR ELISA, Epidemiol Infect 118, 111-117.
82. Whiley DM, Crisante ME, Syrmis MW, Mackay IM, Sloots TP. 2003, Detection of Neisseria Meningitidis in clinical samples by a duplex real-time PCR targeting the porA and ctrA genes, Mol Diagn 7, 141-145.
83. Frosch M, Muller D, Bousset K, Muller A. 1992, Conserved outer membrane protein of Neisseria meningitidis involved in capsule expression, Infect Immun 60, 798-803.
84. Orvelid P, Backman A, Olcen P. 1999, PCR identification of the group A Neisseria meningitidis gene in cerebrospinal fluid, Scand J Infect Dis 31, 481-483.
85. Swartley JS, Liu LJ, Miller YK, Martin LE, Edupuganti S, Stephens DS. 1998, Characterization of the gene cassette required for biosynthesis of the (alpha16)-linked N-acetyl-D-mannosamine-1-phosphate capsule of serogroup A Neisseria meningitidis, J Bacteriol 180, 1533-1539.
86. Rennick G, Shann F, de Campo J. 1993, Cerebral herniation during bacterial meningitis in children, BMJ 306, 953-955.
87. Dezateux CA, Dinwiddie R, Helms P, Matthew DJ. 1986, Recognition and early management of Reye's syndrome, Arch Dis Child 61, 647-651.
88. Berkowitz ID, Berkowitz FE, Newton C, Willoughby R, Ackerman AD. 1996, Meningitis, infectious encephalopathies and other central nervous sytem infections, in Textbook of Pediatric Intensive Care, ed. Rogers MC, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, p. 1039-1090.
89. Anon. 1997, Relative contraindications to lumbar puncture, in Advanced Paediatric Life Support-The Practical Approach, ed. Group ALS, BMJ Publishing Group, London, p. 27.
90. Nadel S. 2001, Lumbar puncture should not be performed in meningococcal disease, Arch Dis Child 84, 375.
91. Pollard AJ, Britto J, Nadel S, DeMunter C, Habibi P, Levin M. 1999, Emergency management of meningococcal disease, Arch Dis Child 80, 290-296.
92. Welch SB, Nadel S. 2003, Treatment of meningococcal infection, Arch Dis Child 88, 608-614.
93. Kneen R, Solomon T, Appleton R. 2002, The role of lumbar puncture in children with suspected central nervous system infection, BMC Pediatr 2, 8.
94. Heyderman RS, Robb SA, Kendall BE, Levin M. 1992, Does computed tomography have a role in the evaluation of complicated acute bacterial meningitis in childhood? Dev Med Child Neurol 34, 870-875.
95. Hasbun R, Abrahams J, Jekel J, Quagliarello VJ. 2001, Computed tomography of the head before lumbar puncture in adults with suspected meningitis, N Engl J Med 345, 1727-1733.
96. Mercier JC, Beaufils F, Hartmann JF, Azema D. 1988, Hemodynamic patterns of meningococcal shock in children, Crit Care Med 16, 27-33.
97. Oragui EE, Nadel S, Kyd P, Levin M. 2000, Increased excretion of urinary glycosaminoglycans in meningococcal septicemia and their relationship to proteinuria, Crit Care Med 28, 3002-3008.
98. Tobin JR, Wetzel RC. 1996, Shock and multiorgan failure, in. Textbook of Pediatric Intensive Care, ed. Rogers MC, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, p. 555-605.
99. Pathan N, Nadel S, Levin M. 2000, Pathophysiology and management of meningococcal septicaemia, J R Coll Physicians Lond 34, 436-444.
100. Faust SN, Levin M, Harrison OB, Goldin RD, Lockhart MS, Kondaveeti S, et al. 2001, Dysfunction of endothelial protein C activation in severe meningococcal sepsis, N Engl J Med 345, 408-416.
101. Parrillo JE. 1993, Pathogenetic mechanisms of septic shock, N Engl J Med 328, 1471-1477.
102. Pathan N, Sandiford C, Harding SE, Levin M. 2002, Characterization of a myocardial depressant factor in meningococcal septicemia, Crit Care Med 30, 2191-2198.
103. Pathan N, Hemingway CA, Alizadeh AA, Stephens AC, Boldrick JC, Oragui EE, et al. 2004, Role of interleukin 6 in myocardial dysfunction of meningococcal septic shock, Lancet 363, 203-209.
104. Kumar A, Thota V, Dee L, Olson J, Uretz E, Parrillo JE. 1996, Tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 1beta are responsible for in vitro myocardial cell depression induced by human septic shock serum, J Exp Med 183, 949-958.
105. Thiru Y, Pathan N, Bignall S, Habibi P, Levin M. A myocardial cytotoxic process is involved in the cardiac dysfunction of meningococcal septic shock. Crit Care Med 2000;28(8), 2979-2983.
106. Carcillo JA, Davis AL, Zaritsky A. 1991, Role of early fluid resuscitation in pediatric septic shock, JAMA 266, 1242-1245.
107. Hodge D. 1985, Intraosseous infusions: a review, Pediatr Emerg Care 1, 215-218.
108. Dula DJ, Lutz P, Vogel MF, Weaver BN. 1985, Rapid flow rates for the resuscitation of hypovolemic shock, Ann Emerg Med 14, 303-306.
109. Carcillo JA, Fields AI. 2002, Clinical practice parameters for hemodynamic support of pediatric and neonatal patients in septic shock, Crit Care Med 30, 1365-1378.
110. Ledingham IM, McArdle CS. 1978, Prospective study of the treatment of septic shock, Lancet 1, 1194-1197.
111. Cochrane Injuries Group Albumin Reviewers 1998, Human albumin administration in critically ill patients: systematic review of randomised controlled trials, Br Med J 317, 225-240.
112. Nadel S, De Munter C, Britto J, Levin M, Habibi P. 1998, Albumin: saint or sinner, Arch Dis Child 79, 384-385.
113. Choi PT, Yip G, Quinonez LG, Cook DJ. 1999, Crystalloids vs. colloids in fluid resuscitation: a systematic review, Crit Care Med 27, 200-210.
114. Maitland K, Pamba A, English M, Peshu N, Marsh K, Newton C, et al. 2005, Randomized trial of volume expansion with albumin or saline in children with severe malaria, preliminary evidence of albumin benefit, Clin Infect Dis 40, 538-545.
115. Finfer S, Bellomo R, Boyce N, French J, Myburgh J, Norton R. 2004, A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit, N Engl J Med 350, 2247-2256.
116. Ernest D, Belzberg AS, Dodek PM. 1999, Distribution of normal saline and 5% albumin infusions in septic patients, Crit Care Med 1999; 27, 46-50.
117. Hussain SN, Roussos C. 1985, Distribution of respiratory muscle and organ blood flow during endotoxic shock in dogs, J Appl Physiol 59, 1802-1808.
118. Yamamoto LG, Yim GK, Britten AG. 1990, Rapid sequence anesthesia induction for emergency intubation, Pediatr Emerg Care 6, 200-213.
119. Khilnani P. 1992, Electrolyte abnormalities in critically ill children, Crit Care Med 20, 241-250
120. van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, Verwaest C, Bruyninckx F, Schetz M, et al. 2001, Intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill patients, N Engl J Med 345, 1359-1367.
121. Bernard GR, Vincent JL, Laterre PF, LaRosa SP, Dhainaut JF, Lopez-Rodriguez A, et al. 2001, Efficacy and safety of recombinant human activated protein C for severe sepsis, N Engl J Med 344, 699-709
122. de Kleijn ED, de Groot R, Hack CE, Mulder PG, Engl W, Moritz B, et al. 2003, Activation of protein C following infusion of protein C concentrate in children with severe meningococcal sepsis and purpura fulminans: a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, dose-finding study, Crit Care Med 31, 1839-1847.
123. Vincent JL, Nadel S, Kutsogiannis DJ, Gibney RT, Yan SB, Wyss VL, et al. 2005, Drotrecogin alfa (activated) in patients with severe sepsis presenting with purpura fulminans, meningitis, or meningococcal disease: a retrospective analysis of patients enrolled in recent clinical studies, Crit Care 9, R331-R343.
124. Mauger DC. 1971, Hypokalaemia as a consistent feature of fulminant meningococcal septicaemia, Aust Paediatr J 7, 84-86.
125. Britto J, Nadel S, Habibi P, Levin M. 1996, Hypokalaemia in meningococcal disease, Intensive Care Med 22, S021.
126. Gauthier B, Trachtman H, Di Carmine F, Urivetsky M, Tobash J, Chasalow F, et al. 1990, Hypocalcemia and hypercalcitoninemia in critically ill children, Crit Care Med 18, 1215-1219.
127. Fuhrman BP. 1989, Hypocalcemia and critical illness in children, J Pediatr 114, 990-991.
128. Chernow B. 1990, Calcium: does it have a therapeutic role in sepsis? Crit Care Med 18, 895-896.
129. Goldhill DR. 1997, Calcium and magnesium, Care Crit Ill 13, 112-115.
130. Zaloga GP, Washburn D, Black KW, Prielipp R. 1993, Human sepsis increases lymphocyte intracellular calcium, Crit Care Med 21, 196-202.
131. Steinhorn DM, Sweeney MF, Layman LK. 1990, Pharmacodynamic response to ionized calcium during acute sepsis, Crit Care Med 18, 851-857.
132. Whang R, Whang DD, Ryan MP. 1992, Refractory potassium repletion. A consequence of magnesium deficiency, Arch Intern Med 152, 40-45.
133. Hamill-Ruth RJ, McGory R. 1996, Magnesium repletion and its effect on potassium homeostasis in critically ill adults: results of a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial, Crit Care Med 24, 38-45.
134. Edwards R, Mitchell M, Twaddle S. 1998, Hypophosphataemia in the critically ill patient-aetiology and management, Care Crit Ill 14, 267-270.
135. Weisinger JR, Bellorin-Font E. 1998, Magnesium and phosphorus, Lancet 352, 391-396.
136. Britto J, Nadel S, Habibi P, Levin M. 1995, Gastrointestinal perforation complicating meningococcal disease, Pediatr Infect Dis J 14, 393-394.
137. Davies MS, Nadel S, Habibi P, Levin M, Hunt DM. 2000, The orthopaedic management of peripheral ischaemia in meningococcal septicaemia in children, J Bone Joint Surg Br 82, 383-386.
138. Odio CM, Faingezicht I, Paris M, Nassar M, Baltodano A, Rogers J, et al. 1991, The beneficial effects of early dexamethasone administration in infants and children with bacterial meningitis, N Engl J Med 324, 1525-1531.
139. Kim KS, Wass CA, Cross AS. 1997, Blood-brain barrier permeability during the development of experimental bacterial meningitis in the rat, Exp Neurol 145, 253-257.
140. Kirkham FJ. 2001, Non-traumatic coma in children, Arch Dis Child 85, 303-312.
141. Poss WB, Brockmeyer DL, Clay B, Dean JM. 1996, Pathophysiology and management of the intracranial vault, in Textbook of Pediatric Intensive Care, ed. Rogers MC, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, p. 645-665.
142. Sarnaik AP, Lieh-Lai MW. 1993, Transporting the neurologically compromised child, Pediatr Clin N Am 40, 337-354.
143. Duke T. 1998, Fluid management of bacterial meningitis in developing countries, Arch Dis Child 79, 181-185.
144. McIntyre PB, Berkey CS, King SM, Schaad UB, Kilpi T, Kanra GY, et al. 1997, Dexamethasone as adjunctive therapy in bacterial meningitis, A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials since 1988, JAMA 278, 925-931
145. van de Beek D, de Gans J, McIntyre P, Prasad K. 2004, Steroids in adults with acute bacterial meningitis: a systematic review, Lancet Infect Dis 4, 139-143.
146. Schaad UB, Kaplan SL, McCracken GH, Jr. 1995, Steroid therapy for bacterial meningitis, Clin Infect Dis 20, 685-690.
147. Schaad UB, Lips U, Gnehm HE, Blumberg A, Heinzer I, Wedgwood J. 1993, Dexamethasone therapy for bacterial meningitis in children, Swiss meningitis study group, Lancet 342, 457-461.
148. Feigin RD, Pearlman E. 1998, Bacterial meningitis beyond the neonatal period, in Textbook of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, 4th edn, ed. Feigin RD, Cherry JD, WB Saunders, Philadelphia, p. 400-429.
149. Bone RC, Fisher CJ, Jr, Clemmer TP, Slotman GJ, Metz CA, Balk RA. 1987, A controlled clinical trial of high-dose methylprednisolone in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock, N Engl J Med 317, 653-658.
150. Lefering R, Neugebauer EA. 1995, Steroid controversy in sepsis and septic shock: a meta-analysis, Crit Care Med 23, 1294-1303.
151. Hatherill M, Tibby SM, Hilliard T, Turner C, Murdoch IA. 1999, Adrenal insufficiency in septic shock, Arch Dis Child 80, 51-55
152. van Woensel JB, Biezeveld MH, Alders AM, Eerenberg AJ, Endert E, Hack EC, et al. 2001, Adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol levels in relation to inflammatory response and disease severity in children with meningococcal disease, J Infect Dis 184, 1532-1537.
153. Roine I, Ledermann W, Foncea LM, Banfi A, Cohen J, Peltola H. 2000, Randomized trial of four vs. seven days of ceftriaxone treatment for bacterial meningitis in children with rapid initial recovery, Pediatr Infect Dis J 19, 219-222.
154. Scholz H, Hofmann T, Noack R, Edwards DJ, Stoeckel K. 1998, Prospective comparison of ceftriaxone and cefotaxime for the short-term treatment of bacterial meningitis in children, Chemotherapy 44, 142-147.
155. Martin E, Hohl P, Guggi T, Kayser FH, Fernex M. 1990, Short course single daily ceftriaxone monotherapy for acute bacterial meningitis in children: results of a Swiss multicenter study, Part I: Clinical results, Infection 18, 70-77.
156. Kavaliotis J, Manios SG, Kansouzidou A, Danielidis V. 1989, Treatment of childhood bacterial meningitis with ceftriaxone once daily: open, prospective, randomized, comparative study of short-course versus standard-length therapy, Chemotherapy 35, 296-303.
157. Nathan N, Borel T, Djibo A, Evans D, Djibo S, Corty JF, et al. 2005, Ceftriaxone as effective as long-acting chloramphenicol in short-course treatment of meningococcal meningitis during epidemics: a randomised non-inferiority study, Lancet 366, 308-313.
158. Britto J, DeMunter C, Habibi P. 1996, Specialized pediatric interhospital transfer, in Intensive Care in Childhood, ed. Tibbrel D, Van der Voort E, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, p. 146-158.
159. Levin M, Quint PA, Goldstein B, Barton P, Bradley JS, Shemie SD, et al. 2000, Recombinant bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein (rBPI21) as adjunctive treatment for children with severe meningococcal sepsis: a randomised trial, rBPI21 Meningococcal sepsis study group, Lancet 2000 356, 961-967.
160. Giroir BP, Scannon PJ, Levin M. 2001, Bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein-lessons learned from the phase III, randomized, clinical trial of rBPI21 for adjunctive treatment of children with severe meningococcemia, Crit Care Med 29[Suppl], S130-S135.
161. Derkx B, Wittes J, McCloskey R. 1999, Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of HA-1A, a human monoclonal antibody to endotoxin, in children with meningococcal septic shock, European pediatric meningococcal septic shock trial study group, Clin Infect Dis 28, 770-777.
162. Polderman KH, Girbes AR. 2004, Drug intervention trials in sepsis: divergent results, Lancet 363, 1721-1723.
163. Annane D, Bellissant E, Cavaillon JM. 2005, Septic shock, Lancet 365, 63-78.
164. Giroir BP. 2003, Recombinant human activated protein C for the treatment of severe sepsis: is there a role in pediatrics? Curr Opin Pediatr 15, 92-96.
165. U.S. Food and Drug Administration 2005, Safety alert: xigris [drotrecogin alfa( activated)], http://www.fda.gov/medwatch/safety/2005/Xigris_dearhcp_4-21-05.pdf.
166. Annane D, Sebille V, Charpentier C, Bollaert PE, Francois B, Korach JM, et al. 2002, Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock, JAMA 288, 862-871.
167. Cronin L, Cook DJ, Carlet J, Heyland DK, King D, Lansang MA, et al. 1995, Corticosteroid treatment for sepsis: a critical appraisal and meta-analysis of the literature, Crit Care Med 23, 1430-1439
168. van Deuren M, Brandtzæg P, van der Meer JW. 2000, Update on meningococcal disease with emphasis on pathogenesis and clinical management, Clin Microbiol Rev 13, 144-166.
169. Zenz W, Zoehrer B, Levin M, Fanconi S, Hatzis TD, Knight G, et al. 2004, Use of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator in children with meningococcal purpura fulminans: a retro spective study, Crit Care Med 32, 1777-1780.
170. Smirnova I, Mann N, Dols A, Derkx HH, Hibberd ML, Levin M, et al. 2003, Assay of locus-specific genetic load implicates rare Toll-like receptor 4 mutations in meningococcal susceptibility, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100, 6075-6080.
171. Read RC, Pullin J, Gregory S, Borrow R, Kaczmarski EB, di Giovine FS, et al. 2001, A functional polymorphism of toll-like receptor 4 is not associated with likelihood or severity of meningococcal disease, J Infect Dis 184, 640-642.
172. Hubacek JA, Stuber F, Frohlich D, Book M, Wetegrove S, Ritter M, et al. 2001, Gene variants of the bactericidal/permeability increasing protein and lipopolysaccharide binding protein in sepsis patients: gender-specific genetic predisposition to sepsis, Crit Care Med 29, 557-561.
173. Harding D, Baines PB, Brull D, Vassiliou V, Ellis I, Hart A, et al. 2002, Severity of meningococcal disease in children and the angiotensin-converting enzyme insertion/deletion polymorphism, Am J Respir Crit Care Med 165, 1103-1106.
174. Hibberd ML, Sumiya M, Summerfield JA, Booy R, Levin M. 1999, Association of variants of the gene for mannosebinding lectin with susceptibility to meningococcal disease, Meningococcal research group, Lancet 353, 1049-1053.
175. Fijen CA, Kuijper EJ, te Bulte M, Daha MR, Dankert J. 1999, Assessment of complement deficiency in patients with meningococcal disease in the Netherlands [in process citation], Clin Infect Dis 28, 98-105.
176. Biesma DH, Hannema AJ, van Velzen-Blad H, Mulder L, van Zwieten R, Kluijt I, et al. 2001, A family with complement factor D deficiency, J Clin Invest 108, 233-240
177. van der Pol WL, Huizinga TW, Vidarsson G, van der Linden MW, Jansen MD, Keijsers V, et al. 2001, Relevance of Fcgamma receptor and interleukin-10 polymorphisms for meningococcal disease, J Infect Dis 184, 1548-1555.
178. Domingo P, Muniz-Diaz E, Baraldes MA, Arilla M, Barquet N, Pericas R, et al. 2002, Associations between Fc gamma receptor IIA polymorphisms and the risk and prognosis of meningococcal disease, Am J Med 112, 19-25.
179. Bredius RG, Derkx BH, Fijen CA, de Wit TP, de Haas M, Weening RS, et al. 1994, Fc gamma receptor IIa (CD32) polymorphism in fulminant meningococcal septic shock in children, J Infect Dis 170, 848-853.
180. Platonov AE, Kuijper EJ, Vershinina IV, Shipulin GA, Westerdaal N, Fijen CA, et al. 1998, Meningococcal disease and polymorphism of FcgammaRIIa (CD32) in late complement component-deficient individuals, Clin Exp Immunol 111, 97-101.
181. Fijen CA, Bredius RG, Kuijper EJ. 1993, Polymorphism of IgG Fc receptors in meningococcal disease, Ann Intern Med 119, 636.
182. Fijen CA, Bredius RG, Kuijper EJ, Out TA, De Haas M, De Wit AP, et al. 2000, The role of Fcgamma receptor polymorphisms and C3 in the immune defence against Neisseria meningitidis in complement-deficient individuals, Clin Exp Immunol 120, 338-345.
183. Kondaveeti S, Hibberd ML, Levin M. 1999, The insertion/deletion polymorphism in the t-PA gene does not significantly affect outcome of meningococcal disease [letter], Thromb Haemost 82, 161-162.
184. Hermans PW, Hibberd ML, Booy R, Daramola O, Hazelzet JA, de Groot R, et al. 1999, 4G/5G promoter polymorphism in the plasminogen-activator-inhibitor-1 gene and outcome of meningococcal disease, Meningococcal research group, Lancet 354, 556-560.
185. Westendorp RG, Hottenga JJ, Slagboom PE. 1999, Variation in plasminogen-activator-inhibitor-1 gene and risk of meningococcal septic shock, Lancet 354, 561-563.
186. Haralambous E, Hibberd ML, Hermans PW, Ninis N, Nadel S, Levin M. 2003, Role of functional plasminogenactivator-inhibitor-1 4G/5G promoter polymorphism in susceptibility, sever ity, and outcome of meningococcal disease in Caucasian children, Crit Care Med 31, 2788-2793.
187. Kondaveeti S, Hibberd ML, Booy R, Nadel S, Levin M. 1999, Effect of the Factor V Leiden mutation on the severity of meningococcal disease, Pediatr Infect Dis J 18, 893-896.
188. Nadel S, Newport MJ, Booy R, Levin M. 1996, Variation in the tumor necrosis factor-alpha gene promoter region may be associated with death from meningococcal disease, J Infect Dis 174, 878-880.
189. Westendorp RG, Langermans JA, Huizinga TW, Elouali AH, Verweij CL, Boomsma DI, et al. 1997, Genetic influence on cytokine production and fatal meningococcal disease, Lancet 349, 170-173.
190. Read RC, Camp NJ, di Giovine FS, Borrow R, Kaczmarski EB, Chaudhary AG, et al. 2000, An interleukin-1 genotype is associated with fatal outcome of meningococcal disease, J Infect Dis 182, 1557-1560.
191. Stuber F, Petersen M, Bokelmann F, Schade U. 1996, A genomic polymorphism within the tumor necrosis factor locus influences plasma tumor necrosis factor-alpha concentrations and outcome of patients with severe sepsis, Crit Care Med 24, 381-384.
192. Fang XM, Schroder S, Hoeft A, Stuber F. 1999, Comparison of two polymorphisms of the interleukin-1 gene family: interleukin-1 receptor antagonist polymorphism contributes to susceptibility to severe sepsis, Crit Care Med 27, 1330-1334.
193. Balding J, Healy CM, Livingstone WJ, White B, Mynett-Johnson L, Cafferkey M, et al. 2003, Genomic polymorphic profiles in an Irish population with meningococcaemia: is it possible to predict severity and outcome of disease? Genes Immun 4, 533-640.
194. Schluter B, Raufhake C, Erren M, Schotte H, Kipp F, Rust S, et al. 2002, Effect of the interleukin-6 promoter polymorphism (-174 G/C) on the incidence and outcome of sepsis, Crit Care Med 30, 32-37.
195. Carrol ED, Mobbs KJ, Thomson AP, Hart CA. 2002, Variable number tandem repeat polymorphism of the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist gene in meningococcal disease, Clin Infect Dis 35, 495-497.
196. Read RC, Cannings C, Naylor SC, Timms JM, Maheswaran R, Borrow R, et al. Variation within genes encoding interleukin-1 and the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist influence the severity of meningococcal disease. Ann Intern Med 2003;138(7), 534-541.
197. McCloskey RV, Straube RC, Sanders C, Smith SM, Smith CR. 1994, Treatment of septic shock with human monoclonal antibody HA-1A. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, CHESS trial study group, Ann Intern Med 121, 1-5.
198. Cohen J, Carlet J. 1996, INTERSEPT: an international, multicenter, placebocontrolled trial of monoclonal antibody to human tumor necrosis factor-alpha in patients with sepsis, International sepsis trial study group, Crit Care Med 24, 1431-1440.
199. Opal S, Laterre PF, Abraham E, Francois B, Wittebole X, Lowry S, et al. 2004, Recombinant human platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase for treatment of severe sepsis: results of a phase III, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, clinical trial, Crit Care Med 32, 332-341.
200. Warren BL, Eid A, Singer P, Pillay SS, Carl P, Novak I, et al. 2001, Caring for the critically ill patient. High-dose antithrombin III in severe sepsis: a randomized controlled trial, JAMA 286, 1869-1878.
201. Abraham E, Reinhart K, Opal S, Demeyer I, Doig C, Rodriguez AL, et al. 2003, Efficacy and safety of tifacogin (recombinant tissue factor pathway inhibitor) in severe sepsis: a randomized controlled trial, JAMA 290, 238-247.