Imaging in genitourinary cancer from the urologists' perspective

Cancer Imaging

Volumn 7, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 84-92

  Tsakiris, Peter ^a   de la Rosette, J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Computed tomography (CT); Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); Positron emission tomography (PET); Renal cancer; Testicular cancer; Urothelial cancer

Indexed keywords

ACETIC ACID; CARBON 11; CHOLINE; FLUORODEOXYGLUCOSE F 18; GADOLINIUM; PROSTATE SPECIFIC ANTIGEN; TECHNETIUM 99M;

BLADDER CANCER; BONE METASTASIS; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CANCER RECURRENCE; CANCER SCREENING; CANCER STAGING; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIGITAL RECTAL EXAMINATION; DISEASE SURVEILLANCE; DOPPLER ECHOGRAPHY; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; ECHOGRAPHY; ELASTOGRAPHY; GLEASON SCORE; HEALTH CARE QUALITY; HUMAN; KIDNEY CARCINOMA; LYMPH NODE METASTASIS; LYMPHADENECTOMY; NEPHRON SPARING SURGERY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY; ORCHIECTOMY; PATIENT CARE; PATIENT MONITORING; PHYSICIAN ATTITUDE; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PREDICTION; PROSTATE BIOPSY; PROSTATE CANCER; PROSTATECTOMY; REVIEW; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SPIRAL COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; TESTIS CANCER; TRANSRECTAL ULTRASONOGRAPHY; TRANSURETHRAL RESECTION; UROGENITAL TRACT CANCER; UROGRAPHY; UROLOGY; BLADDER TUMOR; KIDNEY TUMOR; MALE; METHODOLOGY; PATHOLOGY; PROSTATE TUMOR; TUMOR RECURRENCE; UROGENITAL TRACT TUMOR;

CARCINOMA, RENAL CELL; HUMANS; KIDNEY NEOPLASMS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; MALE; NEOPLASM RECURRENCE, LOCAL; NEOPLASM STAGING; POSITRON-EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PROSTATIC NEOPLASMS; TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED; URINARY BLADDER NEOPLASMS; UROGENITAL NEOPLASMS;

EID: 34250176211     PISSN: None     EISSN: 14707330     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1102/1470-7330.2007.0009     Document Type: Review

References (127)

1. American Cancer Society. Cancer facts and figures; Atlanta: American Cancer Society; 2006.
2. Catalona WJ, Richie JP, Ahmann FR, et al. Comparison of digital rectal examination and serum prostate specific antigen in the early detection of prostate cancer: results of a multicenter clinical trial of 6,630 men. J Urol 1994; 151: 1283-90.
3. Babaian R, Mettlin C, Kane R, et al. The relationship of prostate-specific antigen to digital rectal examination and transrectal ultrasonography. Cancer 1992; 69: 1195-200.
4. Ismail M, Petersen RO, Alexander AA, Newschaffer C, Gomella LG. Color Doppler imaging in predicting the biologic behavior of prostate cancer: correlation with disease-free survival. Urology 1997; 50: 906-12.
5. Cho JY, Kim SH, Lee SE. Diffuse prostatic lesions: role of colour Doppler and power Doppler ultrasonography. J Ultrasound Med 1998; 17: 283-7.
6. Okihara K, Kojima M, Naya Y, Iida A, Watanabe M, Watanabe H. Ultrasonic power Doppler imaging for prostatic cancer: a preliminary report. Tohoku J Exp Med 1997; 182: 277-81.
7. Halpern EJ, Frauscher F, Strup SE, Nazarian LN, O'Kane P, Gomella LG. Prostate: high frequency Doppler US imaging for cancer detection. Radiology 2002; 225: 71-7.
8. Kelly IMG, Lees WR, Rickards D. Prostate cancer and the role of colour Doppler US. Radiology 1993; 189: 153-6.
9. Newman JS, Bree RL, Rubin JM. Prostate cancer: diagnosis with colour Doppler sonography with histologic correlation of each biopsy site. Radiology 1995; 195: 86-90.
10. Cornud F, Belin X, Piron D, et al. Colour Doppler-guided prostate biopsies in 591 patients with an elevated serum PSA level: impact on Gleason score for non-palpable lesions. Urology 1997; 49: 709-15.
11. Burns PN. Harmonic imaging with ultrasound contrast agents. Clin Radiol 1996; 51(Suppl 1): 50-5.
12. Burns PN, Hope SD, Averkiou MA. Nonlinear imaging. Ultrasound Med Biol 2000; 26(Suppl 1): S19-22.
13. Halpern EJ, Frauscher F, Rosenberg M, Gomella LG. Directed biopsy during contrast-enhanced sonography of the prostate. Am J Roentgenol 2002; 178: 915-19.
14. Halpern EJ, McCue PA, Aksnes AK, Hagen EK, Frauscher F, Gomella LG. Contrast-enhanced US of the prostate with Sonazoid: comparison with whole-mount prostatectomy specimens in 12 patients. Radiology 2002; 222: 361-6.
15. Roy C, Buy X, Lang H, Saussine C, Jacqmin D. Contrast enhanced colour Doppler endorectal sonography of prostate: efficiency for detecting peripheral zone tumors and role for biopsy procedure. J Urol 2003; 170: 69-72.
16. Heijmink SW, van Moerkerk H, Kiemeney LA, Witjes JA, Frauscher F, Barentsz JA. Comparison of the diagnostic performance of systematic versus ultrasound-guided biopsies of prostate cancer. Eur Radiol 2006; 16: 927-38.
17. Halpern E, Ramey R, Strup S, Frauscher F, McCue V, Gomilla L. Detection of prostate carcinoma with contrast-enhanced sonography using intermittent harmonic imaging. Cancer 2005; 104: 2373-83.
18. Cochlin D, Ganatraand D, Griffiths F. Elastography in the detection of prostatic cancer. Clin Radiol 2002; 57: 1014-20.
19. Konig K, Scheipers U, Pesavento A, Lorenz A, Ermert H, Senge T. Initial experiences with real-time elastography guided biopsies of the prostate. J Urol 2005; 174: 115-7.
20. Zangos S, Eichler K, Engelmann K, et al. MR-guided transgluteal biopsies with an open low-field system in patients with clinically suspected prostate cancer: technique and preliminary results. Eur Radiol 2005; 15: 174-82.
21. Beyersdorff D, Winkel A, Hamm B, Lenk S, Loening SA, Taupitz M. MR imaging-guided prostate biopsy with a closed MR unit at 1.5 T: initial results. Radiology 2005; 234: 576-81.
22. Partin AW, Kattan MW, Subong EN, et al. Combination of prostate-specific antigen, clinical stage, and Gleason score to predict pathological stage of localized prostate cancer: a multi-institutional update. JAMA 1997; 277: 1445-51.
23. Partin AW, Mangold LA, Lamm DM, Walsh PC, Epstein JI, Pearson JD. Contemporary update of prostate cancer staging nomograms (Partin Tables) for the new millennium. Urology 2001; 58: 843-8.
24. Rifkin MD, Zerhouni EA, Gatsonis CA, et al. Comparison of magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasonography in staging early prostate cancer: results of a multi-institutional cooperative trial. N EngI J Med 1990; 323: 621-6.
25. Liebross RH, Pollack A, Lankford SP, et al. Transrectal ultrasound for staging prostate carcinoma prior to radiation therapy: An evaluation based on disease outcome. Cancer 1999; 85: 1577-1585.
26. Smith Jr JA, Scardino PT, Resnick MI, et al. Transrectal ultrasound versus digital rectal examination for the staging of carcinoma of the prostate: results of a prospective, multi-institutional trial. J Urol 1997; 157: 902-6.
27. Purohit RS, Shinohara K, Meng MV, et al. Imaging clinically localized prostate cancer. Urol Clin North Am 2003; 30: 279-93.
28. Abuzallouf S, Dayes S, Lukka H. Baseline staging of newly diagnosed prostate cancer: a summary of the literature. J Urol 2004; 171: (6 Pt 1)2122-7.
29. Engelbrecht MR, Jager GJ, Laheij RJ, Verbeek AL, van Lier HJ, Barentsz JO. Local staging of prostate cancer using magnetic resonance imaging: a meta-analysis. Eur Radiol 2002; 12: 2294-302.
30. Sosna J, Pedrosa I, Dewolf WC, Mahallati H, Lenkinski RE, Rofsky NM. MR imaging of the prostate at 3 Tesla: comparison of an external phased-array coil to imaging with an endorectal coil at 1.5 Tesla. Acad Radiol 2004; 11: 857-62.
31. Kim HW, Buckley DL, Peterson DM, et al. In vivo prostate magnetic resonance imaging and magnetic resonance spectroscopy at 3 Tesla using a transceive pelvic phased array coil: preliminary results. Invest Radiol 2003; 38: 443-51.
32. Miao H, Fukatsu H, Ishigaki T. Prostate cancer detection with 3-T MRI: comparison of diffusion-weighted and T2-weighted imaging. Eur J Radiol 2007; 61: 297-302.
33. Futterer JJ, Heijmink SW, Scheenen TW, et al. Prostate cancer: local staging at 3-T endorectal MR imaging - early experience. Radiology 2006; 238: 184-91.
34. Buckley DL, Roberts C, Parker GJ, Logue JP, Hutchinson CE. Prostate cancer: evaluation of vascular characteristics with dynamic contrast-enhanced T1-weighted MR imaging-initial experience. Radiology 2004, 233: 709-15.
35. Engelbrecht MR, Huisman HJ, Laheij RJ, et al. Discrimination of prostate cancer from normal peripheral zone and central gland issue by using dynamic contrast-enhanced MR imaging. Radiology 2003; 229: 248-54.
36. Yu KK, Scheidler J, Hricak H, et al. Prostate cancer: prediction of extracapsular extension with endorectal MR imaging and three-dimensional proton MR spectroscopic imaging. Radiology 1999; 213: 481-8.
37. Bartolozzi C, Crocetti L, Menchi I, Ortori S, Lencioni R. Endorectal magnetic resonance imaging in local staging of prostate carcinoma. Abdom Imaging 2001; 26: 111-22.
38. Cornud F, Flam T, Chauveinc L, et al. Extraprostatic spread of clinically localized prostate cancer: factors predictive of pT3 tumor and of positive endorectal MR imaging examination results. Radiology 2002; 224: 203-10.
39. Horiguchi A, Nakashima J, Horiguchi Y, et al. Prediction of extraprostatic cancer by prostate specific antigen density, endorectal MRI, and biopsy Gleason score in clinically localized prostate cancer. Prostate 2003; 56: 23-9.
40. Wang L, Hricak H, Kattan MW, Chen HN, Scardino PT, Kuroiwa K. Prediction of organ-confined prostate cancer: incremental value of MR imaging and MR spectroscopic imaging to staging nomograms. Radiology 2006; 238: 597-603.
41. Zakian KL, Sircar K, Hricak H, et al. Correlation of proton MR spectroscopic imaging with Gleason score based on step-section pathologic analysis after radical prostatectomy. Radiology 2005; 234: 804-14.
42. Aus G, Abbou C, Bolla M, et al. EAU guidelines on prostate canncer. Eur Urol 2005; 48: 546-51.
43. NCCN guidelines. Available online at: http://www.nccn.org/professionals/ cms/pdf/prostate.pdf.
44. Manyak MJ, Javitt MC. The role of computerised tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, bone scan and monoclonal antibody nuclear scan for prognosis prediction in prostate cancer. Semin Urol Oncol 1998; 16: 145-52.
45. Rorvik J, Halvorsen OJ, Alberktsen G, Haukaas S. Lymphangiography combined with biopsy and computer tomography to detect lymph node metastases in localised prostate cancer. Scan J Urol Nephrol 1998; 32: 116-19.
46. Harisinghani MG, Barentsz J, Hahn PF, et al. Noninvasive detection of clinically occult lymph-node metastases in prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 2491-9.
47. 111indium-labeled monoclonal antibody CYT-356. J Urol 1994; 152: 1952-5.
48. Lange PH. PROSTASCINT scan for staging prostate cancer. Urology 2001; 57: 402-6.
49. Hoh CK, Seltzer MA, Franklin J, et al. Positron emission tomography in urological oncology. J Urol 1998; 159: 347-56.
50. Brush JP. Positron emission tomography in urological malignancy. Curr Opin Urol 2001; 11: 175-9.
51. Oyama N, Akino H, Suzuki Y, et al. Prognostic value of 2-deoxy-2-[F-18]fluoro-D-glucose positron emission tomography imaging for patients with prostate cancer. Mol Imaging Biol 2002; 4: 99-104.
52. 18F-FDG in prostate cancer patients. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2003; 30: 607-11.
53. DeGrado TR, Baldwin SW, Wang S, et al. Synthesis and evaluation of (18)F-labeled choline analogs as oncologic PET tracers. J Nucl Med 2001; 42: 1805-14.
54. 18F]fluorodeoxyglucose for positron emission tomography of androgen dependent and androgen independent prostate cancer. J Urol 2002; 168: 273-80.
55. 11C-choline PET. J Nucl Med 2003; 44: 331-5.
56. Janzen NK, Laifer-Narin S, Han KR, et al. Emerging technologies in uroradiologic imaging. Urol Oncol 2003; 21: 317-26.
57. 18F-FDG in prostate cancer patients. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2003; 30: 607-11.
58. Gerber G, Chodak GW. Assessment of value of routine bone scans in patients with newly diagnosed prostate cancer. Urology 1991; 37: 418-22.
59. Oesterling JE. Using PSA to eliminate the staging radionuclide bone scan: significant economic implications. Urol Clin North Am 1993; 20: 705-11.
60. 11C-choline positron emission tomography for the evaluation after treatment of localized prostate cancer. Eur Urol 2003; 44: 32-8.
61. Kattan MW, Wheeler TM, Scardino PT. Postoperative nomogram for disease recurrence after radical prostatectomy for prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 1999; 17: 1499-507.
62. D'Amico AV, Whittington R, Malkowicz SB, et al. The combination of preoperative prostate specific antigen and postoperative pathological findings to predict prostate specific antigen outcome in clinically localized prostate cancer. J Urol 1998; 160: 2096-101.
63. Partin AW, Pearson JD, Landis PK, et al. Evaluation of serum prostate-specific antigen velocity after radical prostatectomy to distinguish local recurrence from distant metastases. Urology 1994; 43: 649-59.
64. Saleem MD, Sanders H, Abu El Naser M, El-Galley R. Factors predicting cancer detection in biopsy of the progtatic fossa after radical prostatectomy. Urology 1998; 51: 283-6.
65. Leventis AK, Shariat SF, Slawin KM. Local recurrence after radical prostatectomy. Correlation of US features with prostatic fossa biopsy findings. Radiology 2001; 219: 432-9.
66. Parra RO, Wolf RM, Huben RP. The use of transrectal ultrasound in the detection and evaluation of local pelvic recurrences after a radical urological pelvic operation. J Urol 1999; 144: 707-9.
67. Silverman JM, Krebs TL. MR imaging evaluation with transrectal surface coil of local recurrence of prostatic cancer in men who have undergone radical prostatectomy. Am J Roentgenol 1997; 168: 379-85.
68. Sella T, Schwartz LH, Swindle P, et al. Endorectal coil MR in patients with PSA failure following radical prostatectomy. Radiology. 2002; 225(suppl): 351E(abstract),.
69. Carey B. Imaging in prostate cancer. Clin Oncol 2005; 17: 553-9.
70. Van der Wall H. The evaluation of malignancy: metastatic bone disease. In: Nuclear medicine in clinical diagnosis and treatment, 2nd edn. Murray IPC, Ell PJ, eds. . ; Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1998, p. 1169-84.
71. Cher ML, Bianco Jr FJ, Lam JS, et al. Limited role of radionuclide bone scintigraphy in patients with prostate specific antigen elevations after radical piostatectomy. J Urol 1998; 160: 1387-91.
72. Elgamal AA, Troychak MJ, Murphy GP. ProstaScint scan may enhance identification of prostate cancer recurrences after prostatectomy, radiation, or hormone therapy: analysis of 136 scans of 100 patients. Prostate 1998; 37: 261-9.
73. Smith-Jones PM, Vallabhajosula S, Navarro V, et al. Radiolabeled monoclonal antibodies specific to the extracellular domain of prostate-specific membrane antigen: preclinical studies in nude mice bearing LNCaP human prostate tumor. J Nucl Med 2003; 44: 610-17.
74. Hricak H, Schöder H, Pucar D, et al. Advances in imaging in the postoperative patient with a rising prostate-specific antigen level. Semin Oncol 2003; 30: 616-34.
75. Schöder H, Larson SM. Positron emission tomography for prostate, bladder, and renal cancer. Semin Nucl Med 2004; 34: 274-92.
76. Matthies A, Ezziddin S, Ulrich EM, et al. Imaging of prostate cancer metastases with (18)F-fluoroacetate using PET/CT. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2004; 31: 797.
77. 18F-fluoride PET/CT. J Nucl Med 2004; 45: 272-8.
78. Schmid DT, John H, Zweifel R, et al. Fluorocholine PET/CT in patients with prostate cancer: Initial experience. Radiology 2005; 235: 623-8.
79. Lightfoot N, Conlon M, Kreiger N, et al. Impact of noninvasive imaging on increased incidental detection of renal cell carcinoma. Eur Urol 2000; 37: 521-7.
80. Luciani LG, Cestari R, Tallarigo C. Incidental renal cell carcinoma-age and stage characterization and clinical implications study of 1092 patients (1982-1997). Urology 2000; 56: 58-62.
81. Chow WH, Devesa SS, Warren JL, Fraumeni JF. Rising incidence of renal cell cancer in the United States. JAMA 1999; 281: 1628-31.
82. Kim HL, Belldegrun AS, Freitas DG, et al. Paraneoplastic signs and symptoms of renal cell carcinoma implications for prognosis. J Urol 2003; 170: 1742-6.
83. Lee CT, Katz J, Fearn PA, et al. Mode of presentation of renal cell carcinoma provides prognostic information. Urol Oncol 2002; 7: 135-40.
84. Roy C, Buy X, el Ghali S. Imaging in renal cell cancer. EAU Update Series 2003; 1: 209-14.
85. Isreal GM, Bosniak MA. Renal imaging for diagnosis and staging of renal cell carcinoma. Urol Clin North Am 2003; 30: 499-514.
86. Schreyer HH, Uggowitzer MM, Ruppert-Kohlmayr A. Helical CT of the urinary organs. Eur Radiol 2002; 12: 575-91.
87. Tann M, Sopov V, Croitoru S, et al. How accurate is helical CT volumetric assessment in renal tumors? Eur Radiol 2001; 11: 1435-8.
88. Helenon O, Correas JM, Balleyguier C, Ghouadni M, Cornud F. Ultrasound of renal tumors. Eur Radiol 2001; 11: 1890-901.
89. Hallscheidt P, Pomer S, Roeren T, Kaufmann GW, Staehler G. Preoperative staging of renal cell carcinoma with caval thrombus: is staging in MRI justified? Prospective histopathological correlated study. Urologe A 2000; 39: 36-40.
90. Hilton S. Imaging of renal cell carcinoma. Semin Oncol 2000; 27: 150-9.
91. Studer UE, Scherz S, Scheidegger J, et al. Enlargement of regional lymph nodes in renal cell carcinoma is often not due to metastases. J Urol 1990; 144: 2 Pt 1243-5.
92. Catalano C, Fraiol Fi, Laghi A, et al. High-resolution multi-detector CT in the preoperative evaluation of patients with renal cell carcinoma. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2003; 180: 1271-7.
93. Karayiannis A, Varkarakis I, Chort M, Alivizatos G, Fragiskos S. Multifocality of renal cell tumors is a factor to consider before performing a partial nephrectomy. Anticancer Res 2002; 22: 3103-7.
94. Schlichter A, Schubert R, Werner W, Zermann DH, Schubert J. How accurate is diagnostic imaging in determination of size and multifocality of renal cell carcinoma as a prerequisite for nephron-sparing surgery? Urol Int 2000; 64: 192-7.
95. Silverman SG, Lee BY, Seltzer SE, Bloom DA, Corless CL, Adams DF. Small (
96. Dockery WD, Stolpen AH. State-of-the-art magnetic resonance imaging of the kidneys and upper urinary tract. J Endourol 1999; 13: 417-23.
97. Campbell SC, Fichtner J, Novick AC, et al. Intraoperative evaluation of renal cell carcinoma: a prospective study of the role of ultrasonography and histopathological frozen sections. J Urol 1996; 155: 1191-5.
98. Kopka L, Fischer U, Zoeller G, Schmidt C, Ringert RH, Grabbe E. Dual-phase helical CT of the kidney: value of the corticomedullary and nephrographic phase for evaluation of renal lesions and preoperative staging of renal cell carcinoma. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997; 169: 1573-8.
99. Heidenreich A, Ravery V. Preoperative imaging in renal cell cancer. World J Urol 2004; 22: 307-15.
100. Kang DE, White Jr RL, Zuger JH, et al. Clinical use of fluorodeoxyglucose F 18 positron emission tomography for detection of renal cell carcinoma. J Urol 2004; 171: 1806-9.
101. Schöder H, Larson S. Positron emission tomography for prostate, bladder, and renal cancer. Semin Nucl Med 2004; 34: 274-92.
102. Coll DM, Uzzo RG, Herts BR, et al. Three-dimensional volume rendered computerized tomography for preoperative evaluation and intraoperative treatment of patients undergoing nephron sparing surgery. J Urol 1999; 161: 1097-102.
103. Coll DM, Herts BR, Davros WJ, et al. Preoperative use of 3D volume rendering to demonstrate renal tumors and renal anatomy. Radiographics 2000; 20: 431-8.
104. Smith PA, Marshall FF, Urban BA, et al. Three-dimensional CT stereoscopic visualization of renal masses: impact on diagnosis and patient treatment. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997; 169: 1331-4.
105. Tosi MR, Rodrigues-Estrada MR, Lercker G, et al Magnetic resonance spectroscopy and chromatographic methods identify altered lipid composition in human renal neoplasms. Int J Mol Med 2004; 14: 93-100.
106. Katz-Brull R, Rofsky NM, Lenkinski RE. Breathhold abdominal and thoracic proton MR spectroscopy at 3T. Magn Reson Med 2003; 50: 461-7.
107. De Bazelaire C, Rofsky NM, Duhamel G, Michaelson MD, George D, Alsop DC. Arterial spin labeling blood flow magnetic resonance imaging for the characterization of metastatic renal cell carcinoma. Acad Radiol 2005; 12: 347-57.
108. Thoeny HC, De Keyzer F, Oyen RH, Peeters RR. Diffusion-weighted MR imaging of kidneys in healthy volunteers and patients with parenchymal diseases: initial experience. Radiology 2005; 235: 911-17.
109. Namimoto T, Yamashita Y, Mitsuzaki Y, Nakayama Y, Tang Y, Takahashi M. Measurement of the apparent diffusion coefficient in diffuse renal disease by diffusion weighted echo-planar MR imaging. J Magn Reson Imaging 1999; 9: 832-7.
110. Cova M, Squillaci E, Stacul F, et al. Diffusion-weighted MRI in the evaluation of renal lesions: preliminary results. Br J Radiol 2004; 77: 851-7.
111. Goessl C, Knispel HH, Miller K, et al. Is routine excretory urography necessary at first diagnosis of bladder cancer? J Urol 1997; 157: 480-1.
112. Hatch TR, Barry JM. The value of excretory urography in staging of bladder cancer [abstract]. J Urol 1986; 135: 49.
113. Lantz EJ, Hattery RR. Diagnostic imaging of urothelial cancer. Urol Clin North Am 1984; 11: 567-583.
114. Barentsz JO, Engelbrecht MRW, Witjes JMO, de la Rosette JJMCH, van der Graaf M. MR imaging of the male pelvis. Eur Radiol. 1999; 9: 1722-36.
115. Voges GE, Tauschke E, Stockle M, et al. Computerized tomography: an unreliable method for accurate staging of bladder tumors in patients who are candidates for radical cystectomy. J Urol 1989; 142: 972-4.
116. Paik ML, Scolieri MJ, Brown SL, et al. Limitations of computerized tomography in staging invasive bladder cancer before radical cystectomy. J Urol 2000; 163: 1693-6.
117. Nurmi M, Katevuo K, Puntala P. Reliability of CT in preoperative evaluation of bladder carcinoma. Scand J Urol Nephrol 1988; 22: 125-8.
118. Barentsz JO, Jager GJ, van Vierzen PB, et al. Staging urinary bladder cancer after transurethral biopsy: value of fast dynamic contrast-enhanced MR imaging. Radiology 1998; 201: 185-93.
119. Koraitim M, Kamal B, Metwalli N, Zaky Y. Transurethral ultrasonographic assessment of bladder carcinoma: its value and limitation. J Urol 1995; 154: 2 Pt 1375-8.
120. Deserno WM, Harisinghani MG, Taupitz M, et al. Urinary bladder cancer: preoperative nodal staging with ferumoxtran 10-enhanced MR imaging. Radiology 2004; 233: 449-56.
121. Grossfeld GD, Litwin MS, Wolf Jr JS, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria in adults: the American Urological Association best practice policy - part II. patient evaluation, cytology, voided markers, imaging, cystoscopy, nephrology evaluation, and follow-up. Urology 2001; 89: 604-10.
122. Nolte-Ernsting CC, Wildberger JE, Borchers H et al. Multi-slice CT urography after diuretic injection: initial results. Rofo Fortschr Geb Rontgenstr Neuen Bildgeb Verfahr 2001; 89: 176-80.
123. Nolte-Ernsting CC, Adam GB, Gunther RW. MR urography. Examination techniques and clinical applications. Eur Radiol 2001; 89: 355-72.
124. Sanyal R, Deshmukh A, Singh Sheorain V, Taori K. CT urography: a comparison of strategies for upper urinary tract opacification. Eur Radiol 2007; 17: 1262-6.
125. Fernandez EB, Moul JW, Foley JP, et al. Retroperitoneal imaging with third and fourth generation computed axial tomography in clinical stage 1 nonseminomatous germ cell tumors. Urology 1994; 44: 548-52.
126. Janzen K, Narin S, Han K, et al. Emerging technologies in uroradiologic imaging. Urol Oncol 2003; 21: 317-26.
127. Harisinghani M, Saksena M, Ross R, et al. A pilot study of lymphotrophic nanoparticle-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging technique in early stage testicular cancer: a new method for noninvasive lymph node evaluation. Urology 2005; 66: 1066-71.