Therapy Insight: Management of Graves' disease during pregnancy

Nature Clinical Practice Endocrinology and Metabolism

Volumn 3, Issue 6, 2007, Pages 470-478

  Chan, Grace W ^a   Mandel, Susan J ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

^b 611 Clinical Research Building ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

Antithyroid drugs; Fetal thyroid dysfunction; Graves' disease; Neonatal thyroid dysfunction; Pregnancy

Indexed keywords

ANTITHYROID AGENT; IODINE; PROPRANOLOL; PROPYLTHIOURACIL; RADIOACTIVE IODINE; THIAMAZOLE; THYROID STIMULATING IMMUNOGLOBULIN; THYROTROPIN; THYROTROPIN RECEPTOR ANTIBODY; THYROXINE;

CHOANA ATRESIA; DELIVERY; ECHOGRAPHY; ESOPHAGUS ATRESIA; FETUS BLOOD SAMPLING; FETUS DEATH; FREE THYROXINE INDEX; GRAVES DISEASE; HUMAN; HYPERTHYROIDISM; HYPOTHYROIDISM; INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION; LOW DRUG DOSE; MENTAL DEFICIENCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SKIN APLASIA; SPONTANEOUS ABORTION; THIRD TRIMESTER PREGNANCY; THYROID FUNCTION; THYROID HORMONE METABOLISM; THYROIDECTOMY; THYROTOXICOSIS; THYROTROPIN BLOOD LEVEL; THYROXINE BLOOD LEVEL;

ANTITHYROID AGENTS; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; FEMALE; GRAVES DISEASE; HUMANS; INFANT, NEWBORN; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS;

EID: 34249324500     PISSN: 17458366     EISSN: 17458374     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/ncpendmet0508     Document Type: Review

References (72)

1. Mestman JH (1997) Hyperthyroidism in pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 40: 45-64
2. Burrow GN (1993) Thyroid function and hyperfunction during gestation. Endocr Rev 14: 194-202
3. Casey BM et al. (2006) Subclinical hyperthyroidism and pregnancy outcomes. Obstet Gynecol 107: 337-341
4. Davis LE et al. (1989) Thyrotoxicosis complicating pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 160: 63-70
5. Millar LK et al. (1994) Low birth weight and preeclampsia in pregnancies complicated by hyperthyroidism. Obstet Gynecol 84: 946-949
6. Anselmo J et al. (2004) Fetal loss associated with excess thyroid hormone exposure. JAMA 292: 691-695
7. Momotani N et al. (1984) Maternal hyperthyroidism and congenital malformation in the offspring. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 20: 695-700
8. Phoojaroenchanachai M et al. (2001) Effect of maternal hyperthyroidism during late pregnancy on the risk of neonatal low birth weight. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 54: 365-370
9. Mitsuda N et al. (1992) Risk factors for developmental disorders in infants born to women with Graves disease. Obstet Gynecol 80: 359-364
10. Burrow GN (1985) The management of thyrotoxicosis in pregnancy. N Engl J Med 313: 562-565
11. Demers LM and Spencer CA (2003) Laboratory medicine practice guidelines: laboratory support for the diagnosis and monitoring of thyroid disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 58: 138-140
12. Sapin R et al. (2004) Free thyroxine measured with equilibrium dialysis and nine immunoassays decreases in late pregnancy. Clin Lab 50: 581-584
13. Spencer CA et al. (2005) Thyroid reference ranges in pregnancy: studies of an iodine-sufficient pregnant cohort [abstract #O 43]. Thyroid 15 (Suppl 1): S-16
14. Panesar NS et al. (2001) Reference intervals for thyroid hormones in pregnant Chinese women. Ann Clin Biochem 38: 329-332
15. Casey BM et al. (2005) Subclinical hypothyroidism and pregnancy outcomes. Obstet Gynecol 105: 239-245
16. Haddow JE et al. (2004) The reference range and within-person variability of thyroid stimulating hormone during the first and second trimesters of pregnancy. J Med Screen 11: 170-174
17. Glinoer D et al. (1993) Serum levels of intact human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) and its free α and β subunits, in relation to maternal thyroid stimulation during normal pregnancy. J Endocrinol Invest 16: 881-888
18. Goodwin TM et al. (1992) Transient hyperthyroidism and hyperemesis gravidarum: clinical aspects. Am J Obstet Gynecol 167: 648-652
19. Amino N et al. (1982) Aggravation of thyrotoxicosis in early pregnancy and after delivery in Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 55: 108-112
20. Marqusee E et al. (1997) Thyroiditis after pregnancy loss. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82: 2455-2457
21. Tan JY et al. (2002) Transient hyperthyroidism of hyperemesis gravidarum. BJOG 109: 683-688
22. Luton D et al. (2005) Management of Graves' disease during pregnancy: the key role of fetal thyroid gland monitoring. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90: 6093-6098
23. Amino N et al. (2003) No increase of blocking type anti-thyrotropin receptor antibodies during pregnancy in patients with Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88: 5871-5874
24. Zakarija M and McKenzie JM (1983) Pregnancy-associated changes in the thyroid-stimulating antibody of Graves' disease and the relationship to neonatal hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 57: 1036-1040
25. Wing DA et al. (1994) A comparison of propylthiouracil versus methimazole in the treatment of hyperthyroidism in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 170: 90-95
26. Marchant B et al. (1977) The placental transfer of propylthiouracil, methimazole and carbimazole. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 45: 1187-1193
27. Mortimer RH et al. (1997) Methimazole and propylthiouracil equally cross the perfused human term placental lobule. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82: 3099-3102
28. Gardner DF et al. (1986) Pharmacology of propylthiouracil (PTU) in pregnant hyperthyroid women: correlation of maternal PTU concentrations with cord serum thyroid function tests. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 62: 217-220
29. Momotani N et al. (1997) Effects of propylthiouracil and methimazole on fetal thyroid status in mothers with Graves' hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82: 3633-3636
30. Momotani N et al. (1986) Antithyroid drug therapy for Graves' disease during pregnancy. Optimal regimen for fetal thyroid status. N Engl J Med 315: 24-28
31. Cheron RG et al. (1981) Neonatal thyroid function after propylthiouracil therapy for maternal Graves' disease. N Engl J Med 304: 525-528
32. Momotani N et al. (2006) Anti-thyroid drug therapy for Graves' disease during pregnancy: mildest thyrotoxic maternal free thyroxine concentrations to avoid fetal hypothyroidism [abstract #87]. Presented at the 77th Annual Meeting of the American Thyroid Association: 2006 October 11-15, Phoenix, AZ
33. Wolf D et al. (2006) Antenatal carbimazole and choanal atresia: a new embryopathy. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 132: 1009-1011
34. Di Gianantonio E et al. (2001) Adverse effects of prenatal methimazole exposure. Teratology 64: 262-266
35. Clementi M et al. (1999) Methimazole embryopathy: delineation of the phenotype. Am J Med Genet 83: 43-46
36. Van Dijke CP et al. (1987) Methimazole, carbimazole, and congenital skin defects. Ann Intern Med 106: 60-61
37. Mujtaba Q and Burrow GN (1975) Treatment of hyperthyroidism in pregnancy with propylthiouracil and methimazole. Obstet Gynecol 46: 282-286
38. Hayashida CY et al. (1990) Neonatal hepatitis and lymphocyte sensitization by placental transfer of propylthiouracil. J Endocrinol Invest 13: 937-941
39. Eisenstein Z et al. (1992) Intellectual capacity of subjects exposed to methimazole or propylthiouracil in utero. Eur J Pediatr 151: 558-559
40. Messer PM et al. (1990) Antithyroid drug treatment of Graves' disease in pregnancy: long-term effects on somatic growth, intellectual development and thyroid function of the offspring. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 123: 311-316
41. Redmond GP (1982) Propranolol and fetal growth retardation. Semin Perinatol 6: 142-147
42. Momotani N et al. (1992) Effects of iodine on thyroid status of fetus versus mother in treatment of Graves' disease complicated by pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 75: 738-744
43. 131I therapy for hyperthyroidism in the first trimester of pregnancy. J Nucl Med 17: 146-149
44. Brosco JP et al. (2006) Impact of specific medical interventions on reducing the prevalence of mental retardation. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 160: 302-309
45. Rose SR et al. (2006) Update of newborn screening and therapy for congenital hypothyroidism. Pediatrics 117: 2290-2303
46. Brodsky JB et al. (1980) Surgery during pregnancy and fetal outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 138: 1165-1167
47. Fisher DA (1997) Fetal thyroid function: diagnosis and management of fetal thyroid disorders. Clin Obstet Gynecol 40: 16-31
48. Szinnai G et al. (2007) Sodium/iodide symporter (NIS) gene expression is the limiting step for the onset of thyroid function in the human fetus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92: 70-76
49. Chopra IJ (1992) Fetal and neonatal hyperthyroidism. Thyroid 2: 161-163
50. Di Cosmo C et al. (2006) The sodium-iodide symporter expression in placental tissue at different gestational age: an immunohistochemical study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 65: 544-548
51. Bidart JM et al. (2000) Expression of Na+/I- symporter and Pendred syndrome genes in trophoblast cells. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85: 4367-4372
52. Mitchell AM et al. (2001) Sodium iodide symporter (NIS) gene expression in human placenta. Placenta 22: 256-258
53. Vulsma T et al. (1989) Maternal-fetal transfer of thyroxine in congenital hypothyroidism due to a total organification defect or thyroid agenesis. N Engl J Med 321: 13-16
54. de Escobar GM et al. (2004) Maternal thyroid hormones early in pregnancy and fetal brain development. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 18: 225-248
55. Gitlin D (1971) Development and metabolism of the immune globulins. In Immunologic Incompetence 3-16, (Eds Kagan BM and Stiehm ER) Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc.
56. Nachum Z et al. (2003) Graves' disease in pregnancy: prospective evaluation of a selective invasive treatment protocol. Am J Obstet Gynecol 189: 159-165
57. Polak M et al. (2004) Fetal and neonatal thyroid function in relation to maternal Graves' disease. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 18: 289-302
58. Wallace C et al. (1995) Fetal thyrotoxicosis: a case report and recommendations for prediction, diagnosis, and treatment. Thyroid 5: 125-128
59. Polak M et al. (2006) Congenital hyperthyroidism: the fetus as a patient. Horm Res 65: 235-242
60. Cohen O et al. (2003) Serial in utero ultrasonographic measurements of the fetal thyroid: a new complementary tool in the management of maternal hyperthyroidism in pregnancy. Prenat Diagn 23: 740-742
61. Van Loon AJ et al. (1995) In utero diagnosis and treatment of fetal goitrous hypothyroidism, caused by maternal use of propylthiouracil. Prenat Diagn 15: 599-604
62. Ochoa-Maya MR et al. (1999) Resolution of fetal goiter after discontinuation of propylthiouracil in a pregnant woman with Graves' hyperthyroidism. Thyroid 9: 1111-1114
63. LeBeau SO and Mandel SJ (2006) Thyroid disorders during pregnancy. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 35: 117-136
64. McNab T and Ginsberg J (2005) Use of anti-thyroid drugs in euthyroid pregnant women with previous Graves' disease. Clin Invest Med 28: 127-131
65. Bruinse HW et al. (1988) Fetal treatment for thyrotoxicosis in non-thyrotoxic pregnant women. Fetal Ther 3: 152-157
66. Serup J and Petersen S (1977) Hyperthyroidism during pregnancy treated with propylthiouracil. The significance of maternal and foetal parameters. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 56: 463-466
67. Davidson KM et al. (1991) Successful in utero treatment of fetal goiter and hypothyroidism. N Engl J Med 324: 543-546
68. Kilpatrick S (2003) Umbilical blood sampling in women with thyroid disease in pregnancy: is it necessary? Am J Obstet Gynecol 189: 1-2
69. Skuza KA et al. (1996) Prediction of neonatal hyperthyroidism in infants born to mothers with Graves disease. J Pediatr 128: 264-268
70. Matsuura N et al. (1988) TSH-receptor antibodies in mothers with Graves' disease and outcome in their offspring. Lancet 1: 14-17
71. Peleg D et al. (2002) The relationship between maternal serum thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulin and fetal and neonatal thyrotoxicosis. Obstet Gynecol 99: 1040-1043
72. Kempers MJ et al. (2003) Central congenital hypothyroidism due to gestational hyperthyroidism: detection where prevention failed. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88: 5851-5857