Egypt and current efforts to criminalize international crimes

International Criminal Law Review

Volumn 5, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 247-265

  El Zeidy, Mohamed M ^a  

^a Office of the Prosecutor General of the Arab Republic of Egypt   (Egypt)

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EID: 34248032580     PISSN: 1567536X     EISSN: 15718123     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/1571812054127835     Document Type: Article

References (112)

1. Accord, Nathan J. Brown, 'Arab Judicial Structures: A Study Presented to the United Nations Development Program', available at, , last visited 1 September, 2004. For an overview of the Egyptian judiciary
2. see Adel Omar Sherif, 'An Overview of the Egyptian Judicial System, and its History', 5 Yearbook of Islamic and Middle Eastern Law 3, 14-28 (1998-1999).
3. Accord, Adel Omar Sherif, Nathan J. Brown, 'Judicial Independence in the Arab World: A Study Presented to the Program of Arab Governance of the United Nations Development Program', available at, , last visited September 1, 2004.
4. States Party to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and their Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977, available at . On 10 November 1952, Egypt ratified the 1949 Geneva Conventions, while on 9 October 1992 ratified the Two Additional Protocols;
5. It also ratified the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide on 8 February 1952 available at
6. and on 26 June 1987 made accession to the UN Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, available at
7. Also on 13 June 1977 it made accession to the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid, available at
8. Said El Gaddar, 'Tatbeek Al Kanoon Aldowaly Amam Al Mahakem Al Mesriah (Applying International Law Before Egyptian Courts) ', (Alexandria: Dar Al Matboaat Al Gamaeyah, 1999), p. 52;
9. Adel Maged, Al Mahkamah Al Genaih Al Dowaliah Wa Alseiadah Al Wataniah (The International Criminal Court and State Sovereignty), (Cairo: Al-Ahram, 2001), p. 111;
10. See also the 1980 Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt, After the Amendments Ratified in May 22, 1980 Referendum, art. 151(1)
11. reprinted in, Albert P. Blaustein & Gisbert H. Flanz, 'Constitutions of the Countries of the World', (New York: Oceana Publications, 1991, p. 38 [hereinafter Egyptian Constitution]. Article 151, which reflects the monist approach, stipulates that: "The President of the Republic shall conclude treaties and communicate them to the People's Assembly, accompanied with suitable clarifications. They shall have the force of law after their conclusion, ratification and publication according to the established procedure. However, peace treaties, alliance pacts, commercial and maritime treaties and all other treaties involving modifications in the territory of the State or having connection with the rights of sovereignty, or which lay upon the treasury of the State certain charges not included in the budget, must acquire the approval of the People's Assembly". However, the jurisprudence of the Egyptian Courts seems to be divided between the dualist and monist approaches. In some decisions the Court of Cassation adopted the dualist approach when it considered the treaty part of the domestic law, but only by virtue of a domestic act or decree giving effect to that treaty
12. see Egyptian Court of Cassation, Civil Appeal No. 450 Judicial Year 45, 17/1/1979 Year No. 30, at 237, 245 (where the Court applied articles 3, 13(1) of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations and noted that "the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations became an operative law in Egypt by virtue of the Presidential Decree Number 469/1969
13. Egyptian Court of Cassation, Civil Appeal No. 1702 Judicial Year 57, 14/11/1989 Year No. 40, at 87. Yet, in other decisions, the Court inclined towards the monist system when it stated that the fact that Egypt is a member of the international community it has to respect the rules of international law including treaties and customary international law. Thus, the Egyptian judge is obliged to directly apply the ratified treaty without any need to implementation or'legislative' procedures, Egyptian Court of Cassation, Civil Appeal No. 295 Judicial Year 51, 25/3/1982 Year No. 33, at 336;
14. Generally Egyptian Emergency Supreme State Security Court, Case No. 4190/1986, 16/4/1987 (Koly shamal).
15. Ian Brownlie, 'Principles of Public International Law', 6th ed., (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 31-32;
16. H. Lauterpacht, 'International Law: A Treatise', Vol. I - Peace, 6th ed., (London, New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1947), pp. 34-37;
17. Louis Henkin, 'International Law and Domestic Law', 216 Recueil Des Cours 88, 89-94(1989);
18. Giuseppe Sperduti, 'Dualism and Monism: A Confrontation to Be Overcome', 3 Italian Yearbook of International Law 31(1977);
19. Paul Sieghart, 'The International Law of Human Rights', (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), pp. 40-41.
20. With the exception of article 317(9) of the Penal Code, which States: "Apenalty of imprisonment shall be imposed in case of crimes of theft committed during war against a wounded even from the enemy power." Moreover, articles 136 and 137 of the Code of Military Regulations No. 25/1966 cover few other acts. Article 136 stipulates: "He who enters a zone of military operations and steals from a dead or wounded or sick soldier even if the latter belongs to the enemy power shall be sentenced to death or a lighter penalty as set out in this law." Article 137 States: "He who commits any act of violence against a wounded or sick soldier hors de combat shall be imprisoned or subjected to a lighter penalty as set out in this law." Although article 137 refers only to acts of violence, arguably if interpreted in wide sense it may cover most of the grave breaches. It is clear from reading the above provisions that articles 136 and 137 of the Military Code were added to supplement article 137(9) which was drafted earlier in 1940. Still Egyptian laws do not regulate other obligations amounting from the 1949 Geneva Conventions and the Protocols thereto. Walid Abdelgawad, "Droit Égyptian", in Antonio Cassese, Mirelle Delmas-Marty (eds.), Jurisdictions Nationales Et Crimes Internationaux, (Paris: PUF, 2002), p. 372.
21. Egyptian Penal Code No. 58/1937 as amended by Law No. 95/2003, Arts. 230-235 [hereinafter Penal Code]
22. See Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, art. 27, reprinted in, Malcolm D. Evans, 'Blackstone's International Law Documents', 5th ed., (London: Blackstone's press, 2001), p. 128;
23. also Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations (Lausanne Convention VI, January 30, 1923, Article 2), Advisory Opinion No. 10, February 21, 1925, PC. I. J., Series B, No. 10, p. 19 (where the Court noted that "a State which has contracted valid international obligations is bound to make in its legislation such modifications as may be necessary to ensure the fulfillment of the Obligations undertaken... contracting Parties are [thus] obliged to bring their legislation into harmony with the [ratified] Convention";
24. Bulacio Case, Judgment of September 18, 2003, Inter-Am. Ct. H. R., (Ser. C) No. 100(2003), para. 118;
25. Juan Humberto Sánchez Case, Judgment of November 25, 2003, Inter-Am. Ct. H. R., (Ser. C) No. 102(2003), para. 52;
26. See for example Article1 common to the four 1949 Geneva Conventions that imposes a duty upon States such as Egypt to 'respect and ensure respect' those treaties and implement their provisions into their domestic laws
27. see Case Concerning the Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. U. S.), 1986 I. C. J., para. 218. The Court Stated: [T]here is an obligation on the United States Government, in the terms of Article 1 of the Geneva Conventions, to "respect" the Conventions and even "to ensure respect" for them "in all circumstances"....
28. also Frits Kalshoven, 'The Undertaking to Respect and Ensure Respect in all Circumstances: From Tiny Seed to Ripening Fruit', 2 Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law 3 ff (1999);
29. Birgit Kessler, 'The Duty to "Ensure Respect" Under Common Article 1 of the Geneva Conventions: Its Implications on International and Non-International Armed Conflicts', 42 German Yearbook of international Law 498ff. (2001).
30. Christopher L. Blakesley, "Extraterritorial Jurisdiction", in M. Cherif Bassiouni (ed.), International Criminal Law: Procedural and Enforcement Mechanisms, 2nd ed., (Transnational Publishers, 1999), pp. 43-69;
31. D. W. Bowett, "Jurisdiction: Changing Patterns of Authority over Activities and Resources, in Charlotte Ku et al. (eds.), International Law: Classic and Contemporary Readings, (Rienner Pub, 1998), pp. 210-217;
32. Rosalyn Higgins, 'Problems and Process: International Law and How We Use It', (Clarendon Press, 1994), pp. 56-77;
33. Louis Henkin, 'State Autonomy and Jurisdiction to Prescribe', 216 Recueil Des Cours 277, 277-298(1989);
34. Georg Schwarzenberger and E. D. Brown, 'AManual of International Law', 6th ed., (1976), pp. 72-79.
35. see, Antonio Cassese, 'International Law', (Oxford: Oxford university Press, 2001), pp. 261-262;
36. Antonio Cassese, 'International Criminal Law', (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 287;
37. Mohamed M. El Zeidy, 'Universal Jurisdiction in Absentia: Is It A Legally Valid Option for Repressing Heinous Crimes?', (2003) Oxford University Comparative Law Forum 4 at ouclf.iuscomp.org, text below fns 15-17;
38. also El Zeidy, 'Universal Jurisdiction In Absentia: Is It Alegally Valid Option For Repressing Heinous Crimes?', 37 The International Lawyer 835, 837(2003);
39. Cf. M. Cherif Bassiouni, 'Crimes Against Humanity in International Law', 2nd ed. (1999), p. 227;
40. Howard S. Levie, 'Terrorism in War-The Law of War Crimes', (1992), pp. 230-231.
41. Penal Code, art. 1; See also Egyptian Code of Criminal Procedures No. 150, 1950 as amended by the Laws Nos. 535/1953, 95/2003, art. 217 [hereinafter Code of Criminal Procedures].
42. Egyptian Court of Cassation, Appeal No. 671 Judicial Year 56, 4/6/1986 Year No. 37, at. 630;
43. Mahmoud Naguib Hosny, 'Sharh Kanoon Al Okobat: Al Kesm Al Am (Commentary on Penal Law: The General Part) ', 4th ed., (Cairo: Nadi Al Koudah, 1977), p. 136.
44. Egyptian Court of Cassation, Appeal No. 109 Judicial Year 57, 1/4/1987 Year No. 38, p. 530;
45. also Appeal No. 23201 Judicial Year 63 3/10/1995 Year No. 46, p. 1055.
46. Egyptian Court of Cassation, Appeal No. 49048 Judicial Year 59, 7/6/1994 Year No. 45, at. 726;
47. Mostafa Magdi Haragah, 'Al Taalik Ala Kanoun Al Aukobat Fee Doua Al Fekh Wa Al Kadaa', 2nd ed., (Cairo: Nadi Al Koudah, 1992), pp. 28-29.
48. Mohamed Mohey Al Din Awad, 'Al Kanoun Al Genaay (Penal Law) ', (Cairo, 1981), p. 60.
49. see also Code of Criminal Procedures, arts. 384, 386-388, 392, 394-401.
50. For a different opinion cf. Abd-El Fattah Serag, 'Al Nazariah Alaamah Letasleem Al Mogremeen (The General Theory of Extradition) ', (Dar Al Nahada Al Arabiah: Cairo, 2003), p. 214.
51. Egyptian Constitutional Court, Appeal No. 113, 12/12/1914, p. 123 reprinted in Haragah, supra note 20, p. 37.
52. Egyptian Court of Cassation, Appeal of 4/12/193, reprinted in Haragah, supra note 20, p. 37.
53. Egyptian Court of Cassation, Appeal No. 3011, Judicial Year No. 32, 17/12/1962, p. 846;
54. Appeal No. 4010, Judicial Year No. 64, 16/12/1996 Year 47, p. 1355
55. Resolution 453-dal 18 (D 18)-25/10/2002.
56. Fourteenth Meeting of the Arab Committee of Experts and the Representatives of the Arab Countries for the Preparation of a Model Law for the Crimes that falls under the Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court's Statute, (0403) waw (w) - 01/(12/03) 14/03-11 Geem (G), 28-31/12/2003, pp. 2-4 [hereinafter Fourteenth Meeting].
57. For account on the New German Code, see Steffen Wirth, 'Germany's New International Crimes Code: Bringing A Case to Court', 1 Journal of International Criminal Justice 151(2003);
58. Helmut Satzger, 'German Criminal Law and the Rome Statute - A Critical Analysis of the New German Code of Crimes Against International Law', 2 International Criminal Law Review 261(2002);
59. Gerhard Werle & Florian Jessberger, 'International Criminal Justice is Coming Home: The New German Code of Crimes Against International Law, 13 Criminal Law Forum 191(2002).
60. Cherif Atlam, "Tagrim Intihakat Al Kanoun Al Dowaly Al Insani: Manhag Wa Mawdoa Al Taadil Al Tashriay 'Derasa Mokaranah' (Criminalising Violations of International Humanitarian Law: Method and the subject matter of Legislative Amendments: Comparative Study), in Cherif Atlam (ed.), Al Mahkama Al Genaia Al Dewalia: Al Mowaamat Al Dostoriah Wa Al Tshriah (Mashroa Khanoon Namozagi) (The International Criminal Court: Constitutional and Legislative compatibility (Project of Model Law), 2nd ed., (ICRC, 2004), pp. 364-373;
61. Cf. Cherif Atlam, Mohamed Maher, Annex Draft Model Law Regarding International Crimes, in, Thirteenth Meeting of the Arab Committee of Expert's and the Representatives of the Arab Countries for the Harmonization of the Arab Positions Regarding International Conferences and Treaties and to examine the project of the Model Law for the Crimes that falls under the Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court's Statute, (0297) Geem (G) - 01/(09/03) 13/03-11 Geem (G), 1-4/9/2003.
62. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Adopted by the United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries, 17 July 1998 UN Doc. A/CONF. 183/9, art. 28 [hereinafter ICC Statute];
63. Amended Committee of Expert's Draft, arts. 3, 4 [ICRC draft].
64. ICC Statute, art. 33(2);
65. ICRC draft, art. 5.
66. Accord, Antonio Cassese, 'International Criminal Law', (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 241 [hereinafter ICL];
67. Generally on superior orders, Andreas Zimmermann, "Superior Orders", in Antonio Cassese et al. (eds.), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary, Vol. I (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 996, 971-973 [hereinafter ICL];
68. Paolo Gaeta, 'The Defense of Superior Orders: The Statute of the International Criminal Court Versus Customary International Law', 10 European Journal of International Law 172(1999);
69. and generally Hilaire McCoubrey, 'From Nuremberg To Rome: Restoring the defense of Superior Orders', 50 International & Comparative Law Quarterly 386(2001);
70. see also Prosecutor v. Drazen Erdemovic, Case No. IT-96-22-A, 7 October 1997, para.15 (Separate and dissenting Opinion of Judge Cassese) (noting that if the 'superior order is manifestly illegal under international law, the subordinate is under a duty to refuse to obey the order';
71. ICRC draft, art. 6; Werle et al., supra note 35, p. 215.
72. ICRC draft, arts. 7, 8;
73. ICC Statute, art. 6 (a);
74. ICRC draft, art. 7.
75. ICC Elements of Crimes, (PCNICC/2000/INF/3Add.1), Element 1 of Genocide, which States: '1. The perpetrator killed one or more persons.
76. Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4-T, Judgment, 2 September 1998, para. 521.
77. Prosecutor v. Georges Anderson Rutaganda, Judgment and Sentence, 6 December 1999, para. 60.
78. Prosecutor v. Alfred Musema, Case No. ICTR-96-13-A, Judgment and Sentence, 27 January 2000, para., 165.
79. Prosecutor v. Ignace Bagilishema, Case No. ICTR-1-A-T, Judgment, 7 June 2001, para. 61.
80. Prosecutor v. Laurent Semanza, Case No. ICTR-97-20T, Judgment and Sentence, 15 May 2003, para. 319.
81. Antonio Cassese, "Genocide", in Cassese et al. (eds.) ICL, supra note 40, p. 349;
82. Cf. William A. Schabas, 'Genocide in International Law: The Crimes of Crimes', (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 230-234 (understanding that the proper interpretation of article II of the Genocide Convention (currently article 6 of the ICC Statute) covers even the case of killing one member of the group).
83. William A. Schabas, 'Introduction to the International Criminal Court', 2nd ed., (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 39.
84. Prosecutor v. Clément Kayishema et al, Case No. ICTR-95-I-T, Judgment, 21 May 1999, para. 96.
85. see William A. Schabas, 'The Jelesic Case and the Mens Rea of the Crime of Genocide', 14 Leiden Journal of International Law 125, 128-133(2001).
86. Prosecutor v. Dusko Sikirika et al., Judgment on Defense Motions to Aquit, 3 September 2001, para. 65.
87. Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic, Case No. IT-98-33-A, Judgment, 19 April 2004, para. 8.
88. As to the text of the first amendment see Belgium's Amendment to the Law of June 15, 1993 (As Amended by the Law of February 10, 1999)
89. Concerning the Punishment of Grave Breaches of Humanitarian Law, April 23, 2003
90. reprinted in, 42 International Legal Materials 749(2003) +;
91. For the second see Belgium's Amendment to the Law of June 15, 1993 (As Amended by the Law of February 10, 1999 and April 23, 2003)
92. Concerning the Punishment of Grave Breaches of Humanitarian Law, 7 August, 2003
93. reprinted in, 42 International Legal Materials 1258(2003) +.
94. As one commentator puts it, "The Universality principle is generally understood as giving jurisdiction to a State for acts committed by foreigners anywhere in the world, merely on the basis of the perpetrator being in that State's territory. This is an unduly limited interpretation of what universal jurisdiction should be, however. If such a territorial link is required, real universal jurisdiction is not being exercised", Brigitte Stern, 'Better Interpretation and Enforcement of Universality of Jurisdiction', 14 Nouvelles Etudes Pénals 175, 185(1998).
95. Paragraph (b) of the Egyptian Model Law (ICRC Draft) appears to be borrowed from the Canadian Act, see section 8 (b) of the Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act which stipulates "[A] person who is alleged to have committed an offence under section 6 or 7 may be prosecuted for that offence if... (b) after the time of the offence is alleged to have been committed, the person is present in Canada," Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act, S. C. 2000, c.24, available at last visited 20 August 2004; for a discussion on this Act
96. see William A. Schabas, 'Canadian Implementing Legislation for the Rome Statute', 3 Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law 337, 343-344(2000).
97. Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1-AR72, Decision on the Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction, 2 October 1995, paras. 17-18.
98. Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic, Case No. IT-98-33-A, Judgment 19 April 2004, Partial Dissenting Opinion of Judge Shahabuddeen, para. 64.
99. On account of those principles, see Andrew Ashworth, "Principles of Criminal Law", 3rd ed., (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 71;
100. Aly Mokhtar, 'Nullum Crimen, Nulla Poena Sine Lege: Aspects and Prospects', 26 Statute Law Review 41(2005);
101. Jerome Hall, "General Principles of Criminal Law", 2nd ed., (New York: Indianapolis, 1960), pp. 29-30;
102. Glanville Williams, "Criminal Law: The General Part", 2nd ed., (London: Stevens & Sons, 1961), p. 580;
103. Jerome Hall, 'Nulla Poena Sine Lege', 47 Yale Law Journal 165(1937). On the origins
104. see Joel Prentiss Bishop, "ATreaties on Criminal Law", 9th ed., (Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1982), p 186;
105. Sir Williams Blackstone, "Commentaries on the Laws of England", (London: John Murray, 1865), p. 3.
106. Mohamed M. El Zeidy, 'The Principle of Complementarity: A New Machinery to Implement International Criminal Law, 23 Michigan Journal of International Law 869(2002);
107. ICC Statute, art. 12(2) (a) (b);
108. Mohamed El Zeidy, 'The United States Dropped the Atomic Bomb of Article 16 of the ICC Statute: Security Council Power of Deferrals and Resolution 1422', 35 Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 1503, 1506, 1506 n. 9(2002);
109. Nitsue Inazumi, 'The Meaning of the State Consent Precondition in Article 12(2) of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Theoretical Analysis of the Source of International Criminal Jurisdiction', XLIX Netherlands International Law Review 159, 163-164;
110. generally Jordan J. Paust, 'The Reach of the ICC Jurisdiction Over Non-Signatory Nationals', 33 Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 1(2000);
111. Micaela Frulli, "Jurisdiction Ratione Personae", in Cassese ICL, supra note 40, p. 535;
112. Sharon A. Williams, "Article 12: Preconditions to the Exercise of Jurisdiction", in Otto Triffterer (ed.), Commentary on the Rome statute of the International Criminal Court: Observers'Notes, Article By Article, (1999), p. 340.