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Volumn 13, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 191-223

International criminal justice is coming home: The new German code of crimes against international law

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EID: 27244456265     PISSN: 10468374     EISSN: 15729850     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1022222620759     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (31)

References (131)
  • 2
    • 52649133875 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The necessary sixty ratifications (ICC Statute, art. 126) were achieved in less than four years. By 1 July 2002, the Statute had been signed by 139 states and ratified by seventy-four states
    • The necessary sixty ratifications (ICC Statute, art. 126) were achieved in less than four years. By 1 July 2002, the Statute had been signed by 139 states and ratified by seventy-four states.
  • 3
    • 52649117052 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Roy S. Lee, ed.
    • See generally THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT, THE MAKING OF THE ROME STATUTE (Roy S. Lee, ed., 1999);
    • (1999) The Making of the Rome Statute
  • 6
    • 0040372605 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The United States and the International Criminal Court
    • COMMENTARY ON THE ROME STATUTE OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT, OBSERVER'S NOTES, ARTICLE BY ARTICLE (Otto Triffterer, ed., 1999). For the United States position, see David Scheffer, The United States and the International Criminal Court, 93 AM. J. INT'L L. 12 (1999).
    • (1999) Am. J. Int'l L. , vol.93 , pp. 12
    • Scheffer, D.1
  • 7
    • 52649113731 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • art. 5.
    • ICC Statute, art. 5. In principle, the Court's jurisdiction also covers the crime of aggression. Under article 5(2), aggression will not be prosecuted until a provision is adopted defining the crime and setting out the conditions under which the Court shall exercise this jurisdiction.
    • ICC Statute
  • 8
  • 10
    • 52649133874 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 26 June 2002. Apart from the CCIL, the Act also provides for follow-up amendments, especially as regards the Criminal Code, the Code of Criminal Procedure and the Courts Act.
    • The CCIL has been introduced as article 1 of the Act to Introduce a Code of Crimes Against International Law of 26 June 2002. Apart from the CCIL, the Act also provides for follow-up amendments, especially as regards the Criminal Code, the Code of Criminal Procedure and the Courts Act.
    • Act to Introduce A Code of Crimes Against International Law
  • 13
    • 52649142667 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Konturen eines deutschen Voelkerstrafrechts
    • Gerhard Werle, Konturen eines deutschen Voelkerstrafrechts, JURISTENZEITUNG 885 (2001);
    • (2001) Juristenzeitung , pp. 885
    • Werle, G.1
  • 15
    • 52649088797 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Auf dem Weg zu einem deutschen Voelkerstrafgesetzbuch
    • Andreas Zimmermann, Auf dem Weg zu einem deutschen Voelkerstrafgesetzbuch, ZEITSCHRIFT FUER RECHTSPOLITIK 97 (2002).
    • (2002) Zeitschrift fuer Rechtspolitik , pp. 97
    • Zimmermann, A.1
  • 16
    • 52649092358 scopus 로고
    • Ministerium der Justiz, ed., 5th
    • Although article 2(1)(c) of the Allied Control Council Law No. 10 on the Punishment of Persons Guilty of War Crimes, Crimes against Peace and Humanity (Official Gazette of the Control Council for Germany, No. 3, 31 January 1946) provided for prosecution of crimes against humanity as part of the occupation law in post-war Germany, it was never incorporated into the legislation of the Federal Republic of Germany. In contrast, the German Democratic Republic incorporated the Nuremberg law into its domestic legislation. Crimes against humanity were punishable under section 91 of the (East German) Criminal Code; see, for details, STRAFRECHT DER DEUTSCHEN DEMOKRATISCHEN REPUBLIK, KOMMENTAR ZUM STRAFGESETZBUCH 246 (Ministerium der Justiz, ed., 5th 1987).
    • (1987) Strafrecht der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, Kommentar zum Strafgesetzbuch , pp. 246
  • 17
    • 84866585507 scopus 로고
    • As the District Court of Jerusalem, Attorney-General v. Adolf Eichmann, (1961) 36 I.L.R. 109, pointed out, the Wannsee Conference was "the central event in the history of the 'final solution' ". The phrase "final solution" refers to the extermination of the Jews, which early in 1939 Hitler had threatened would be one of the consequences of an outbreak of war. A special section of the Gestapo under Adolf Eichmann was formed to carry out this policy. France et al. v. Goering et al.
    • As the District Court of Jerusalem, Attorney-General v. Adolf Eichmann, (1961) 36 I.L.R. 109, pointed out, the Wannsee Conference was "the central event in the history of the 'final solution' ". The phrase "final solution" refers to the extermination of the Jews, which early in 1939 Hitler had threatened would be one of the consequences of an outbreak of war. A special section of the Gestapo under Adolf Eichmann was formed to carry out this policy. See France et al. v. Goering et al., reprinted in 41 AM. J. INT'L L. 172 (1947), at p. 245.
    • (1947) Am. J. Int'l L. , vol.41-172 , pp. 245
  • 18
    • 52649139955 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Claus Kress & Flavia Lattanzi, eds.
    • Currently, domestic law is being reviewed in several countries to determine if it is suitable to support the international system and, if necessary, to be adjusted; see THE ROME STATUTE AND DOMESTIC LEGAL ORDERS I (Claus Kress & Flavia Lattanzi, eds., 2000);
    • (2000) The Rome Statute and Domestic Legal Orders I
  • 19
    • 52649121787 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Follow Up to Rome: Preparing for Entry into Force of the International Criminal Court Statute
    • William A. Schabas, Follow Up to Rome: Preparing for Entry into Force of the International Criminal Court Statute, 20 HUMAN RIGHTS L.J. 157 (1999);
    • (1999) Human Rights L.J. , vol.20 , pp. 157
    • Schabas, W.A.1
  • 20
    • 84880640206 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecuting Pinochets in South Africa - Implementing the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
    • Florian Jessberger & Cathleen Powell, Prosecuting Pinochets in South Africa - Implementing the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 14 SOUTH AFRICAN J. CRIMINAL JUSTICE 344 (2001), at p. 352.
    • (2001) South African J. Criminal Justice , vol.14-344 , pp. 352
    • Jessberger, F.1    Powell, C.2
  • 21
    • 52649166132 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • National Courts and the Prosecution of War Crimes
    • Gabrielle Kirk McDonald & Olivia Swaak-Goldman, eds.
    • This international system has dynamically begun to take shape during the last decade as regards both its national and its international mechanisms. On the international level, the criminal tribunals in The Hague and Arusha, both established pursuant to United Nations Security Council resolutions, are operating successfully. Notwithstanding the dismal reality of domestic prosecutions in general (see Ruth Wedgwood, National Courts and the Prosecution of War Crimes, in I SUBSTANTIVE AND PROCEDURAL ASPECTS OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW 389 (Gabrielle Kirk McDonald & Olivia Swaak-Goldman, eds., 2000)) there have recently been some promising cases, most prominently the efforts to prosecute Augusto Pinochet in Spain and the United Kingdom.
    • (2000) I SUBSTANTIVE and PROCEDURAL ASPECTS of INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW , pp. 389
    • Wedgwood, R.1
  • 22
    • 0346254078 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • International Criminal Law and Augusto Pinochet
    • See Ruth Wedgwood, International Criminal Law and Augusto Pinochet, 40 VIRGINIA J. INT'L L. 829 (2000);
    • (2000) VIRGINIA J. INT'L L. , vol.40 , pp. 829
    • Wedgwood, R.1
  • 23
    • 0011842919 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecuting Pinochet: International Crimes in Spanish Domestic Law
    • Robert J. Wilson, Prosecuting Pinochet: International Crimes in Spanish Domestic Law, 21 HUMAN RIGHTS Q. 927 (1999).
    • (1999) HUMAN RIGHTS Q. , vol.21 , pp. 927
    • Wilson, R.J.1
  • 25
    • 52649149108 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See F. Jessberger & C. Powell, supra note 8, at p. 347
    • See F. Jessberger & C. Powell, supra note 8, at p. 347.
  • 29
    • 52649132308 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See for details F. Jessberger & C. Powell, supra note 8, at p. 347
    • See for details F. Jessberger & C. Powell, supra note 8, at p. 347.
  • 30
    • 52649113731 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • preamble, para. 4
    • ICC Statute, preamble, para. 4.
    • ICC Statute
  • 31
    • 52649113731 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • preamble, para. 6
    • ICC Statute, preamble, para. 6.
    • ICC Statute
  • 32
    • 84866577138 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • There is an exception to this rule as regards offences against the administration of justice under article 70 of the ICC Statute. Article 70(4) provides that each State Party "shall extend its criminal laws [...] to offences against the administration of justice referred to in this article". Apart from that, the ICC Statute contains obligations only with regard to cooperation and legal assistance to the Court. For details, see part 9 of the ICC Statute
    • There is an exception to this rule as regards offences against the administration of justice under article 70 of the ICC Statute. Article 70(4) provides that each State Party "shall extend its criminal laws [...] to offences against the administration of justice referred to in this article". Apart from that, the ICC Statute contains obligations only with regard to cooperation and legal assistance to the Court. For details, see part 9 of the ICC Statute.
  • 33
    • 0342402758 scopus 로고
    • (Geneva) Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War
    • art. 146 ("parties undertake to enact any legislation necessary to provide effective penal sanctions")
    • See, e.g., (Geneva) Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, (1950) 75 U.N.T.S. 287, art. 146 ("parties undertake to enact any legislation necessary to provide effective penal sanctions")
    • (1950) U.N.T.S. , vol.75 , pp. 287
  • 34
    • 0039139367 scopus 로고
    • Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
    • art. 4
    • and Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, (1987) 1465 U.N.T.S. 85, art. 4.
    • (1987) U.N.T.S. , vol.1465 , pp. 85
  • 36
    • 52649085787 scopus 로고
    • Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
    • annex, and article 10(2)(a)
    • At first sight, the mere fact that a state prosecutes an alleged war criminal "only" under a murder charge does not seem an appropriate reason to see the state as "unable" or even "unwilling" to prosecute the offender. However, the law and practice of the ad hoc tribunals in The Hague and Arusha appear to give some indication to the contrary. Under article 9(2)(a) of the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, U.N. Doc. S/RES/955 (1994), annex, and article 10(2)(a)
    • (1994) U.N. Doc. S/RES/955
  • 37
    • 52649175912 scopus 로고
    • Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
    • of the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, U.N. Doc. S/RES/827 (1993), annex, the principle ne bis in idem does not apply although a person has been tried by a national court, if the act for which he or she was tried "was characterized as an ordinary crime". In this case, the person may be tried again by the tribunals.
    • (1993) U.N. Doc. S/RES/827
  • 38
    • 0040192562 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • One example (suggested by Virginia Morris & Michael P. Scharf, THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR RWANDA (1998) at 344) is conduct that "constitutes the ordinary crime of murder under national laws as well as the more serious crime of genocide under international law".
    • (1998) THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL for RWANDA , pp. 344
    • Morris, V.1    Scharf, M.P.2
  • 39
    • 52649088267 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind
    • The Commentary of the International Law Commission explains the corresponding rule in article 12 of the Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind (U.N. Doc. A/48/10) by saying that "in such a case, the individual has not been tried or punished for the same crime but for a 'lesser crime' that does not encompass the full extent of his criminal conduct"
    • U.N. Doc. A/48/10
  • 40
    • 52649104393 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Commentary reprinted in 18 HUMAN RIGHTS L. J. 119 (1997)). Yet, it is important to note that the corresponding rule in article 20 of the ICC Statute does not provide for an exception of the ne bis in idem principle in these cases.
    • (1997) HUMAN RIGHTS L. J. , vol.18 , pp. 119
  • 42
    • 0039782308 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The International Criminal Court: A Checklist for National Implementation
    • W. Schabas, supra note 8, at p. 160; G. Werle, supra note 5, at p. 886.
    • See Bruce Broomhall, The International Criminal Court: A Checklist for National Implementation, 13 NOUVELLES ÉTUDES PÉNALES 113 (1999), at pp. 148-154; W. Schabas, supra note 8, at p. 160; G. Werle, supra note 5, at p. 886.
    • (1999) NOUVELLES ÉTUDES PÉNALES , vol.13-113 , pp. 148-154
    • Broomhall, B.1
  • 43
    • 52649169178 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See B. Broomhall, supra note 20, at p. 159
    • See B. Broomhall, supra note 20, at p. 159.
  • 45
    • 52649171897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • International Criminal Investigations and Prosecutions: From Versailles to Rwanda
    • M. Cherif Bassiouni, ed., 2nd ed.
    • M. Cherif Bassiouni, International Criminal Investigations and Prosecutions: From Versailles to Rwanda, in III INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW 31 (M. Cherif Bassiouni, ed., 2nd ed., 1999).
    • (1999) III INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW , vol.31
    • Cherif Bassiouni, M.1
  • 47
    • 52649110603 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., art. 227(1).
    • Ibid., art. 227(1).
  • 49
    • 84923650315 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Agreement for the Prosecution and Punishment of Major War Criminals of the European Axis, Annex (Charter of the International Military Tribunal (I.M.T.))
    • secondly, the judgment of the International Military Tribunal of 1 October 1946 (supra note 7); thirdly, the Nuremberg Principles as adopted by the United Nations General Assembly (G.A. Res. 95(1) of 11 December 1946); and finally, the Control Council Law No. 10 (supra note 6)
    • The term "Nuremberg" as used here relates to the four elements of international adjudication of the Nazi terror: firstly, the Agreement for the Prosecution and Punishment of Major War Criminals of the European Axis, Annex (Charter of the International Military Tribunal (I.M.T.)) (1951) 82 U.N.T.S. 279; secondly, the judgment of the International Military Tribunal of 1 October 1946 (supra note 7); thirdly, the Nuremberg Principles as adopted by the United Nations General Assembly (G.A. Res. 95(1) of 11 December 1946); and finally, the Control Council Law No. 10 (supra note 6).
    • (1951) U.N.T.S. , vol.82 , pp. 279
  • 50
    • 26844482210 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Voelkerstrafrecht und geltendes deutsches Strafrecht
    • In contrast to the position in the former German Democratic Republic (see supra note 6), Nuremberg law and principles were not incorporated into the West German legal order. Only the crime of genocide was provided for in section 220a of the Criminal Code pursuant to the obligations of the Genocide Convention. German courts did not refer to the Nuremberg principles when punishing Nazi atrocities. It was only decades later and in relation to the prosecutions of crimes committed under the auspices of the German Democratic Republic that the Federal Supreme Court expressly acknowledged the principles of international criminal law (BGHSt 41, 101, 109). See for details Gerhard Werle, Voelkerstrafrecht und geltendes deutsches Strafrecht, JURISTENZEITUNG 755 (2000);
    • (2000) JURISTENZEITUNG , pp. 755
    • Werle, G.1
  • 52
    • 52649150774 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Contribution of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Laender to the Work of the ICTY
    • Datuk L. C. Vorah, ed.
    • See Peter Wilkitzki, The Contribution of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Laender to the Work of the ICTY, in ESSAYS IN HONOUR OF JUDGE A. CASSESE (Datuk L. C. Vorah, ed., 2002);
    • (2002) ESSAYS in HONOUR of JUDGE A. CASSESE
    • Wilkitzki, P.1
  • 54
    • 52649168958 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Internationaler Strafgerichtshof. Ein bedeutender Anfang in Rom
    • Gerhart Baum, Eibe Riedel & Michael Schaefer, eds.
    • See Hans-Peter Kaul, Internationaler Strafgerichtshof. Ein bedeutender Anfang in Rom, in MENSCHENRECHTSSCHUTZ IN DER PRAXIS DER VEREINTEN NATIONEN 273 (Gerhart Baum, Eibe Riedel & Michael Schaefer, eds., 1998);
    • (1998) MENSCHENRECHTSSCHUTZ in der PRAXIS der VEREINTEN NATIONEN , pp. 273
    • Kaul, H.-P.1
  • 55
    • 52649149779 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Der Aufbau des Internationalen Strafgerichtshofes - Schwierigkeiten und Fortschritte
    • Hans-Peter Kaul, Der Aufbau des Internationalen Strafgerichtshofes - Schwierigkeiten und Fortschritte, VEREINTE NATIONEN 215 (2001).
    • (2001) VEREINTE NATIONEN , pp. 215
    • Kaul, H.-P.1
  • 56
    • 41849096744 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Genocide and War Crimes in the Former Yugoslavia before German Criminal Courts
    • supra note 9, See the landmark decisions of the Federal Supreme Court (BGHSt 45, 64) and the Federal Constitutional Court (NEUE ZEITSCHRIFT FUER STRAFRECHT (2001), at 240)
    • See, for details, Kai Ambos & Steffen Wirth, Genocide and War Crimes in the Former Yugoslavia Before German Criminal Courts, in INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL PROSECUTION OF CRIMES UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW, CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS, supra note 9, pp. 769-797. See the landmark decisions of the Federal Supreme Court (BGHSt 45, 64) and the Federal Constitutional Court (NEUE ZEITSCHRIFT FUER STRAFRECHT (2001), at 240).
    • INTERNATIONAL and NATIONAL PROSECUTION of CRIMES under INTERNATIONAL LAW, CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS , pp. 769-797
    • Ambos, K.1    Wirth, S.2
  • 57
    • 52649104862 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See F. Jarasch & C. Kress, supra note 28, at 91
    • See F. Jarasch & C. Kress, supra note 28, at 91.
  • 59
  • 60
    • 52649085262 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Act to Implement the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
    • The Law was introduced under article 1 of the Act to Implement the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Federal Gazette I (2002), at 2144.
    • (2002) Federal Gazette i , pp. 2144
  • 61
    • 34248080456 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The German law on co-operation with the ICC
    • See Peter Wilkitzki, The German law on co-operation with the ICC, 2 INT'L CRIMINAL L. REV. 195 (2002).
    • (2002) INT'L CRIMINAL L. REV. , vol.2 , pp. 195
    • Wilkitzki, P.1
  • 62
    • 52649113194 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • As regards the crime of aggression, section 80 of the German Criminal Code imposes a penalty for the preparation of a war of aggression in which Germany is involved
    • As regards the crime of aggression, section 80 of the German Criminal Code imposes a penalty for the preparation of a war of aggression in which Germany is involved.
  • 63
    • 52649152287 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See the examples given by G. Werle, supra note 27, at p. 756; H. Satzger, supra note 5, at p. 126
    • See the examples given by G. Werle, supra note 27, at p. 756; H. Satzger, supra note 5, at p. 126.
  • 64
    • 52649169177 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Since the definitions of war crimes and crimes against humanity in particular cover a range of acts which are already punishable as ordinary crimes, these acts acquire their character as crimes against international law by being perpetrated in connection with an international or non-international armed conflict or a systematic or widespread attack against a civilian population. It is only this context that shifts the individual act into an international law dimension.
  • 65
    • 52649135510 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecuting International Crimes in Domestic Courts: A Look Back Ahead
    • (forthcoming)
    • See, for details, Florian Jessberger, Prosecuting International Crimes in Domestic Courts: A Look Back Ahead, 12 FINNISH YEARBOOK INT'L L. (2002) (forthcoming).
    • (2002) FINNISH YEARBOOK INT'L L. , vol.12
    • Jessberger, F.1
  • 66
    • 52649085788 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See G. Werle, supra note 5, at p. 885
    • See G. Werle, supra note 5, at p. 885.
  • 71
    • 84857072416 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The International Criminal Court and National Jurisdictions
    • Mauro Politi & Giuseppe Nesi, eds., G. Werle, supra note 5, at p. 886; F. Jessberger & C. Powell, supra note 8, at p. 352
    • An analysis of the implementing legislation in other countries shows that there are various options. An easy (and widespread) approach would have been to simply rely on existing law. As mentioned before, this model complies in principle with the requirements of the ICC Statute, but for policy reasons it is not recommendable. Two further models can be distinguished: Firstly, the reference to the ICC Statute or to international customary law is a way of comprehensively integrating the substantive law into the domestic legal system. The obvious advantage of this approach is the complete congruence of international and national rules. However, at least in those jurisdictions where the principle of legality is taken particularly seriously there are doubts about this approach. The other basic model is the (full) codification model, which means copying the wording into domestic law by amending existing prescriptions or creating a new code. This approach allows the specific needs and views of the implementing state to be taken into account and the necessary adjustments to national criminal law to be included, but risks not being completely congruent with the ICC Statute. For details see Flavia Lattanzi, The International Criminal Court and National Jurisdictions, in THE ROME STATUTE OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT, A CHALLENGE TO IMPUNITY 177, 186 (Mauro Politi & Giuseppe Nesi, eds., 2001); G. Werle, supra note 5, at p. 886; F. Jessberger & C. Powell, supra note 8, at p. 352.
    • (2001) THE ROME STATUTE of the INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT, A CHALLENGE to IMPUNITY , vol.177 , pp. 186
    • Lattanzi, F.1
  • 73
    • 52649124232 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Compared to other German codes in the field of criminal law the CCIL is relatively short; e.g., the Criminal Code comprises 358 sections and the Military Crimes Code 48 sections
    • Compared to other German codes in the field of criminal law the CCIL is relatively short; e.g., the Criminal Code comprises 358 sections and the Military Crimes Code 48 sections.
  • 74
    • 52649112658 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The CCIL makes no provision for the crime of aggression. Sections 80 and 80a of the German Penal Code have not been transferred into the CCIL. The reason for both is the fear that any national definition of this crime would endanger the reaching of a consensus as regards an internationally accepted definition
    • The CCIL makes no provision for the crime of aggression. Sections 80 and 80a of the German Penal Code have not been transferred into the CCIL. The reason for both is the fear that any national definition of this crime would endanger the reaching of a consensus as regards an internationally accepted definition.
  • 75
    • 52649172161 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Here the CCIL explicitly refers to the concept of serious criminal offences (Verbrechen), which means (pursuant to section 12 of the German Criminal Code) crimes with a mandatory minimum sentence of one year of imprisonment. Section 12 reads as follows: (1) Serious criminal offences are unlawful acts that are punishable by a minimum of imprisonment for one year or more. (2) Less serious criminal offences are unlawful acts that are punishable by a minimum of a lesser term of imprisonment or a fine. (3) Aggravation or mitigation, which are provided under the provisions of the General Part or for especially serious or less serious cases, shall be irrelevant to this classification.
  • 76
    • 52649097936 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The deviating jurisprudence of the Federal Supreme Court, which required an additional link to Germany in cases where German law was to be applied under the universality principle (see BGHSt 45, 64 and K. Ambos & S. Wirth, supra note 30), is therefore meaningless for the applicability of the CCIL
    • The deviating jurisprudence of the Federal Supreme Court, which required an additional link to Germany in cases where German law was to be applied under the universality principle (see BGHSt 45, 64 and K. Ambos & S. Wirth, supra note 30), is therefore meaningless for the applicability of the CCIL.
  • 77
    • 84866574264 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sections 4 to 7 and 9 of the German Criminal Code provide for extra-territorial jurisdiction under the flag principle, the protection principle, the principles of active and passive personality, the principle of representative administration of justice, the "effects" principle and the principle of universality. The latter, however, will not apply to crimes under sections 13 and 14 of the CCIL. For details see F. Jessberger, supra note 38
    • Sections 4 to 7 and 9 of the German Criminal Code provide for extra-territorial jurisdiction under the flag principle, the protection principle, the principles of active and passive personality, the principle of representative administration of justice, the "effects" principle and the principle of universality. The latter, however, will not apply to crimes under sections 13 and 14 of the CCIL. For details see F. Jessberger, supra note 38.
  • 78
    • 52649118556 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This term refers in particular to the Criminal Code
    • This term refers in particular to the Criminal Code.
  • 79
    • 84866591941 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In articles 22 to 33 as well as in articles 77 to 80 the ICC Statute contains an almost complete set of "general principles" of criminal law. The provisions under this heading are, in fact, closer to what might be called a "General Part of international criminal law"
    • In articles 22 to 33 as well as in articles 77 to 80 the ICC Statute contains an almost complete set of "general principles" of criminal law. The provisions under this heading are, in fact, closer to what might be called a "General Part of international criminal law".
  • 80
    • 52649159734 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Notably, the initial draft produced by the working group included a specific provision for self-defence. The draft provision read as follows: Section 3 Self-defence (1) Self-defence within the meaning of this Act shall be the defence needed to avert from oneself or another the imminent unlawful use of force. In the event of commission of an offence pursuant to Sections [8 to 12 concerning war crimes] the perpetrator shall, moreover, also have acted unlawfully where the offence is necessary to ward off an imminent unlawful attack on property which is essential for the survival of the person concerned or on property which is essential for a military mission. (2) Whoever in necessary defence commits an offence pursuant to this Act shall not have acted unlawfully. The offence shall not however be indicated in necessary defence if its probable consequences are out of proportion to the disadvantages made imminent by the attack. (3) Participation in a military defence operation shall not in itself alone establish any justification based on necessary defence. This provision was deleted from the CCIL during legislative procedures, as the opinion had gained acceptance that the application of section 32 of the German Criminal Code, the general provision on self-defence, would lead to results consistent with the Statute.
  • 81
    • 84866592918 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Zur Frage eines "internationalen" Allgemeinen Teils
    • L. Sadat, supra note 3, at p. 128; W. Schabas, supra note 3, at p. 86; Klaus Schuenemann et al., eds.
    • It seems though that most commentators favour a narrow understanding of article 30 of the ICC Statute, limiting it to dolus directus. See e.g. L. Sadat, supra note 3, at p. 128; W. Schabas, supra note 3, at p. 86; Thomas Weigend, Zur Frage eines "internationalen" Allgemeinen Teils, in FESTSCHRIFT FÜR CLAUS ROXIN 1375, 1389 (Klaus Schuenemann et al., eds., 2001);
    • (2001) FESTSCHRIFT für CLAUS ROXIN , vol.1375 , pp. 1389
    • Weigend, T.1
  • 84
    • 84866582233 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On several occasions the ICTY has held that dolus directus is not required under the ICTY Statute and customary international law; see e.g., Prosecutor v. Delalic (Case No. IT-96-21-T), Judgment, 16 November 1998, paras 435-438; Prosecutor v. Krnojelac (Case No. IT-97-25-T), Judgment, 15 March 2002, para 59 ("accused must at least take the risk that [his acts] are part [of an attack against the civilian population]"). See L. Sadat, supra note 3, p. 210
    • On several occasions the ICTY has held that dolus directus is not required under the ICTY Statute and customary international law; see e.g., Prosecutor v. Delalic (Case No. IT-96-21-T), Judgment, 16 November 1998, paras 435-438; Prosecutor v. Krnojelac (Case No. IT-97-25-T), Judgment, 15 March 2002, para 59 ("accused must at least take the risk that [his acts] are part [of an attack against the civilian population]"). See L. Sadat, supra note 3, p. 210.
  • 85
    • 52649172665 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Section 13 of the German Criminal Code (commission by omission) reads as follows: (1) Whoever fails to avert a result, which is an element of a penal norm, shall only be punishable under this law, if he is legally responsible for the fact that the result does not occur, and if the omission is equivalent to the realization of the statutory elements of the crime through action [...]
  • 86
    • 27244457618 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • International Criminal Law Principles
    • W. Schabas, supra note 3, p. 87; supra note 3, K. Ambos, supra note 54, at p. 671; A. Zimmermann, supra note 5, at p. 101
    • At the Rome Conference no consensus on a definition of the notion of omission could be reached. However, no delegation contested that certain crimes could be committed by failing to take action. In fact, article 28 (responsibility of commanders and other superiors) gives evidence of that. The Chair of the Working Group noted that judicial discretion on the subject of omissions would never be abusive, see W. Schabas, supra note 3, p. 87; Per Saland, International Criminal Law Principles, in THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT, THE MAKING OF THE ROME STATUTE, supra note 3, p. 212. It has to be admitted, however, that it would be difficult to argue that the punishability of omissions as a general rule is (already) part of international (customary) law; see K. Ambos, supra note 54, at p. 671; A. Zimmermann, supra note 5, at p. 101.
    • THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT, the MAKING of the ROME STATUTE , pp. 212
    • Saland, P.1
  • 87
    • 84923650315 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • art. 7(4) of the ICTY Statute, supra notes 18 and 26
    • See e.g., art. 8 of the Charter of the International Military Tribunal, art. 7(4) of the ICTY Statute, supra notes 18 and 26.
    • Charter of the International Military Tribunal
  • 88
    • 52649174293 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For the reasons see T. Weigend, supra note 64, at p. 1397
    • For the reasons see T. Weigend, supra note 64, at p. 1397.
  • 89
    • 52649105918 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra note 48 and accompanying text
    • See supra note 48 and accompanying text.
  • 90
    • 52649148037 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • That means that these crimes prescribe within five years (section 78(3) no. 4 of the German Criminal Code)
    • That means that these crimes prescribe within five years (section 78(3) no. 4 of the German Criminal Code).
  • 91
    • 52649136521 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra note 27 and accompanying text.
    • See supra note 27 and accompanying text.
  • 92
    • 52649142058 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Minor changes have been made, leaving the substance of the crime untouched. They serve first and foremost to clarify that the definition is also met when the perpetrator, acting with genocidal intent, kills or severely harms only one member of a group or forcibly abducts only one child of a group to another group. This adjustment confirms the interpretation of former section 220a of the German Criminal Code and simultaneously accords with the Elements of Crimes (U.N. Doc. PCNICC/2000/INF./3/Add.2) to article 6 of the ICC Statute (e.g., Element No. 1 to article 6(a), (b), (c)).
  • 93
    • 52649137029 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In Germany, legal definitions in the Special Part of the Criminal Code are in fact not unknown, but are seldom used
    • In Germany, legal definitions in the Special Part of the Criminal Code are in fact not unknown, but are seldom used.
  • 94
    • 22644448449 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Defining Crimes Against Humanity at the Rome Conference
    • W. Schabas, supra note 3, at p. 36
    • See generally for the structure of crimes against humanity, Darryl Robinson, Defining Crimes Against Humanity at the Rome Conference, 93 AM. J. INT'L L. 43 (1999); W. Schabas, supra note 3, at p. 36;
    • (1999) AM. J. INT'L L. , vol.93 , pp. 43
    • Robinson, D.1
  • 96
    • 52649086250 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Both concepts are common to German criminal law; see H.-H. Jescheck & T. Weigend, supra note 45, at pp. 168, 872
    • Both concepts are common to German criminal law; see H.-H. Jescheck & T. Weigend, supra note 45, at pp. 168, 872.
  • 97
    • 84856838606 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Article 7(1)(i) - Crime Against Humanity of Enforced Disappearance of Persons
    • Roy S. Lee, ed.
    • In fact this definition takes up the corresponding Elements of Crimes, see Elements 1(a) and (b) to article 7(1)(i). See further Georg Witschel & Wiebke Rueckert, Article 7(1)(i) - Crime Against Humanity of Enforced Disappearance of Persons, in THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT, ELEMENTS OF CRIMES AND RULES OF PROCEDURE AND EVIDENCE 101 (Roy S. Lee, ed., 2001).
    • (2001) THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT, ELEMENTS of CRIMES and RULES of PROCEDURE and EVIDENCE , vol.101
    • Witschel, G.1    Rueckert, W.2
  • 98
    • 52649171357 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Section 226 of the German Criminal Code reads as follows: (1) If the bodily injury has, as a result, that the injured person: 1. loses his sight in one eye or in both eyes, his hearing, his speech or his procreative capacity; 2. loses or permanently can no longer use an important bodily member; 3. is permanently disfigured in a substantial way or becomes infirm, paralysed, mentally ill or disabled, then the punishment shall be imprisonment from one year to ten years.
  • 99
    • 52649124233 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Prosecutor v. Kupreskic et al. (Case no. IT-95-16-T), Judgment, 14 January 2000, para 580; Prosecutor v. Kordic et al. (Case no. IT-95-14/2-T), Judgment, 26 February 2001, para 193. See also W. Schabas, supra note 3, at p. 39
    • See Prosecutor v. Kupreskic et al. (Case no. IT-95-16-T), Judgment, 14 January 2000, para 580; Prosecutor v. Kordic et al. (Case no. IT-95-14/2-T), Judgment, 26 February 2001, para 193. See also W. Schabas, supra note 3, at p. 39.
  • 100
    • 22344452726 scopus 로고
    • Protocol Additional to the 1949 Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I)
    • Protocol Additional to the 1949 Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to The Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), (1979) 1125 U.N.T.S. 3.
    • (1979) U.N.T.S. , vol.1125 , pp. 3
  • 101
    • 52649139406 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecutor v. Kupreskic et al., supra note 69, paras 521, 524; G. Werle, supra note 5, at p. 895
    • Prosecutor v. Kupreskic et al., supra note 69, paras 521, 524; G. Werle, supra note 5, at p. 895.
  • 102
    • 52649178829 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecutor v. Tadic (Case no. IT-94-1-AR72), Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction, 2 October 1995, paras 119, 124
    • Prosecutor v. Tadic (Case no. IT-94-1-AR72), Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction, 2 October 1995, paras 119, 124.
  • 103
    • 84866591931 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For the efforts to implement the ICC Statute in other countries see supra note 8; further information as regards the implementation in different European states can be found at 〈http://www.legal.coe.int/criminal/icc〉.
  • 104
    • 84866591932 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See W. Schabas, supra note 3, at p. 23. Trial Chamber II of the ICTY stressed that "[t]he Rome Statute may be taken to restate, reflect or clarify customary rules or cristalize them, whereas in some areas it creates new law or modifies existing law", Prosecutor v. Furundzija (IT-95-17/1-T), Judgment, 10 December 1998, para 227
    • See W. Schabas, supra note 3, at p. 23. Trial Chamber II of the ICTY stressed that "[t]he Rome Statute may be taken to restate, reflect or clarify customary rules or cristalize them, whereas in some areas it creates new law or modifies existing law", Prosecutor v. Furundzija (IT-95-17/1-T), Judgment, 10 December 1998, para 227.
  • 105
    • 33750217019 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • War Crimes Committed in Non-International Armed Conflict and the Emerging System of International Criminal Justice
    • See, e.g., the examples with regard to civil war crimes given by Claus Kress, War Crimes Committed in Non-International Armed Conflict and the Emerging System of International Criminal Justice, 30 ISRAEL YEARBOOK OF HUMAN RIGHTS 103 (2001), at p. 134.
    • (2001) ISRAEL YEARBOOK of HUMAN RIGHTS , vol.30-103 , pp. 134
    • Kress, C.1
  • 106
    • 52649103959 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See the examples given supra notes 71 and 72 and accompanying text
    • See the examples given supra notes 71 and 72 and accompanying text.
  • 107
    • 52649172160 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See section 2 of the CCIL and supra notes 51 to 53 and accompanying text
    • See section 2 of the CCIL and supra notes 51 to 53 and accompanying text.
  • 108
    • 84866574247 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See W. Schabas, supra note 3, at p. 71. Recently Kai Ambos has presented the first comprehensive in-depth study on the "General Part" of international criminal law, see supra note 54
    • See W. Schabas, supra note 3, at p. 71. Recently Kai Ambos has presented the first comprehensive in-depth study on the "General Part" of international criminal law, see supra note 54.
  • 109
    • 85071518140 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • War Crimes and Internal Conflicts in the Statute of the International Criminal Court
    • See the landmark ICTY decision, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 72. supra note 43, at p. 107; C. Kress, supra note 74, at p. 105
    • See the landmark ICTY decision, Prosecutor v. Tadic, supra note 72. Also: Luigi Condorelli, War Crimes and Internal Conflicts in the Statute of the International Criminal Court, in THE ROME STATUTE OF THE INTERNATIONAL COURT, supra note 43, at p. 107; C. Kress, supra note 74, at p. 105.
    • THE ROME STATUTE of the INTERNATIONAL COURT
    • Condorelli, L.1
  • 110
    • 52649136023 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Only a few crimes are limited to international armed conflicts, see e.g., sections 8(3), 9(2) and 11(3) of the CCIL
    • Only a few crimes are limited to international armed conflicts, see e.g., sections 8(3), 9(2) and 11(3) of the CCIL.
  • 111
    • 52649106916 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Penalties and the Determination of the Sentence in the Rules of Procedure and Evidence
    • supra note 9, at 141.
    • See articles 77 and 78 of the ICC Statute. For the relevance of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, see Jens Peglau, Penalties and the Determination of the Sentence in the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, in INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL PROSECUTION OF CRIMES UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW, CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS, supra note 9, at 141.
    • INTERNATIONAL and NATIONAL PROSECUTION of CRIMES under INTERNATIONAL LAW, CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS
    • Peglau, J.1
  • 112
    • 84882601344 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Punishment and Human Rights in International Criminal Justice
    • Generally on sentencing in international law see Dirk van Zyl Smit, Punishment and Human Rights in International Criminal Justice, 2 HUMAN RIGHTS LAW REVIEW 65 (2002).
    • (2002) HUMAN RIGHTS LAW REVIEW , vol.2 , pp. 65
    • Van Zyl Smit, D.1
  • 113
    • 52649099941 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See H.-H. Jescheck & T. Weigend, supra note 45, at pp. 137, 872
    • See H.-H. Jescheck & T. Weigend, supra note 45, at pp. 137, 872.
  • 114
    • 52649121788 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • According to article 102 of the German Constitution, the death penalty is abolished. Except for the crimes under the CCIL, life imprisonment is mandatory only for murder and homicide in serious cases (sections 211 and 212(2) of the German Criminal Code).
  • 115
    • 52649086766 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Extraterritorial Jurisdiction
    • supra note 22
    • See Christopher L. Blakesley, Extraterritorial Jurisdiction, in III INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW, supra note 22, at p. 70;
    • III INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW , pp. 70
    • Blakesley, C.L.1
  • 117
    • 23944518646 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Programme in Law and Public Affairs, Princeton University, ed.
    • PRINCETON PRINCIPLES ON UNIVERSAL JURISDICTION (Programme in Law and Public Affairs, Princeton University, ed., 2001). For a thorough analysis of national legislation and case law establishing the principle of universal jurisdiction,
    • (2001) PRINCETON PRINCIPLES on UNIVERSAL JURISDICTION
  • 118
    • 84888109005 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium, Judgment of 14 February 2002 (Joint Separate Opinion by Judges Higgins, Kooijmans, Buergenthal), para 19
    • see the recent decision of the International Court of Justice: Case Concerning the Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judgment of 14 February 2002 (Joint Separate Opinion by Judges Higgins, Kooijmans, Buergenthal), para 19.
    • International Court of Justice: Case Concerning the Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000
  • 119
    • 52649113731 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • preamble, para 3
    • ICC Statute, preamble, para 3.
    • ICC Statute
  • 120
    • 31144458103 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Duty to Prosecute International Crimes Committed by Individuals
    • Hans-Joachim Cremer et al., eds.
    • On whether universal jurisdiction is mandatory or only permissive, see Christian Tomuschat, The Duty to Prosecute International Crimes Committed by Individuals, in FESTSCHRIFT FÜR HELMUT STEINBERGER 315 (Hans-Joachim Cremer et al., eds., 2002);
    • (2002) FESTSCHRIFT für HELMUT STEINBERGER , pp. 315
    • Tomuschat, C.1
  • 123
    • 52649133874 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art. 3 supra note 5
    • Art. 3 of the Act to Introduce a Code of Crimes Against International Law, supra note 5, submits the crimes of the CCIL to the general rule under the German Code of Criminal Procedure, whereafter the law enforcement authorities are required to investigate and prosecute if there are sufficient factual indications (Legalitaetsprinzip). The relevant section 152(2) of the German Code of Criminal Procedure reads as follows: Except as otherwise provided by law, the public prosecution office shall be obliged to take action in the case of all criminal offences which may be prosecuted, provided there are sufficient factual indications.
    • Act to Introduce A Code of Crimes Against International Law
  • 124
    • 52649109678 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Prior to the enactment of the CCIL the prosecution of (non-international and) international crimes committed outside Germany was governed by section 153c of the German Code of Criminal Procedure. Section 153c(1) reads as follows: (1) The public prosecution office may dispense with prosecuting criminal offences: 1. which have been committed outside the territorial scope of this Statute, or which an inciter or accessory to an act committed outside the territorial scope of this Statute has committed within the territorial scope thereof; [...]
  • 125
    • 52649128286 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Act to Introduce the Code of Crimes against International Law
    • Article 1 26 June 2002
    • Article 1 of the Act to Introduce the Code of Crimes against International Law of 26 June 2002, Federal Gazette I (2002), p. 2254. Unofficial translation by Brian Duffet, reprinted by kind permission of the German Federal Ministry of Justice.
    • (2002) Federal Gazette i , pp. 2254
  • 126
    • 52649132818 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • In German law the term "serious criminal offence" (Verbrechen) is used to denote criminal offences (Straftaten) that are punishable with not less than one year of imprisonment, see supra note 47. Mitigating (and aggravating) circumstances - as set out for instance in section 8(5) - are to be disregarded in this respect. As a result, all criminal offences in the CCIL are "serious criminal offences" (Verbrechen) with the sole exception of those in sections 13 and 14. Please note that the terminological differentiation between "criminal offences" (Straftaten) and "serious criminal offences" (Verbrechen) is, for technical reasons, not reflected everywhere in this translation.
  • 127
    • 52649128286 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Act to Introduce the Code of Crimes against International Law
    • See ibid. Act to Introduce the Code of Crimes against International Law of 26 June 2002, Federal Gazette I (2002), p. 2254.
    • (2002) Federal Gazette I , pp. 2254
  • 128
    • 52649148038 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For section 226 see supra note 68
    • For section 226 see supra note 68.
  • 129
    • 52649118555 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • According to section 38(2) of the German Criminal Code, sentences with a fixed term are not to exceed a maximum period of fifteen years of imprisonment. The official Annex to section 8(6) no. 1 reads as follows: For the purposes of this Act the term "Geneva Conventions" shall constitute a reference to the following: - I. GENEVA CONVENTION of 12 August 1949 for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field (Federal Gazette 1954 II pp. 781, 783), - II. GENEVA CONVENTION of 12 August 1949 for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea (Federal Gazette 1954 II pp. 781, 813), - III. GENEVA CONVENTION of 12 August 1949 relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (Federal Gazette 1954 II pp. 781, 838) and - IV. GENEVA CONVENTION of 12 August 1949 relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (Federal Gazette 1954 II pp. 781, 917) For the purposes of this Act Protocol I shall constitute a reference to the following: Protocol Additional to the GENEVA CONVENTIONS of 12 August 1949 and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I) of 8 June 1977 (Federal Gazette 1990 II pp. 1550, 1551).
  • 131
    • 52649179356 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For section 153c see supra note 88
    • For section 153c see supra note 88.


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