The QT interval and psychotropic medications in children: Recommendations for clinicians

European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

Volumn 16, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 33-47

  McNally, Paul ^a   McNicholas, Fiona ^a   Oslizlok, Paul ^a  

^a OUR LADY S CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (Ireland)

Author keywords

Arrhythmia; Children; Prescribing; Psychotropic medications; QTc prolongation

Indexed keywords

AMFEBUTAMONE; AMITRIPTYLINE; ARIPIPRAZOLE; BENZODIAZEPINE; CHLORPROMAZINE; CITALOPRAM; CLOZAPINE; DESIPRAMINE; DROPERIDOL; FLUOXETINE; FLUPHENAZINE; FLUVOXAMINE; HALOPERIDOL; IMIPRAMINE; MESORIDAZINE; NORTRIPTYLINE; OLANZAPINE; PAROXETINE; PERPHENAZINE; PHENOTHIAZINE DERIVATIVE; PIMOZIDE; PIPAMPERONE; PSYCHOTROPIC AGENT; QUETIAPINE; RISPERIDONE; SERTRALINE; THIORIDAZINE; TRIFLUOPERAZINE; UNINDEXED DRUG; ZIPRASIDONE;

AGRANULOCYTOSIS; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; BRADYCARDIA; CHILD; CLINICAL TRIAL; DRUG MEGADOSE; ELECTROCARDIOGRAM; ELECTROLYTE DISTURBANCE; GENE MUTATION; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; HEART DEATH; HEART DISEASE; HEART MUSCLE POTENTIAL; HEART RATE; HEART REPOLARIZATION; HEART VENTRICLE ARRHYTHMIA; HUMAN; HYPOTENSION; LONG QT SYNDROME; LOW DRUG DOSE; NEUROTOXICITY; NORMAL VALUE; PHEOCHROMOCYTOMA; PSEUDOTUMOR; QT INTERVAL; QT PROLONGATION; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SIDE EFFECT; SUDDEN DEATH; SYNCOPE; T WAVE; TACHYCARDIA; TORSADE DES POINTES;

ACTION POTENTIALS; ARRHYTHMIA; CHILD; CYTOCHROME P-450 ENZYME SYSTEM; ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY; FEMALE; HEART; HEART DISEASES; HUMANS; LONG QT SYNDROME; MALE; PSYCHOTROPIC DRUGS; REFERENCE VALUES;

EID: 34247489316     PISSN: 10188827     EISSN: 1435165X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00787-006-0573-0     Document Type: Review

References (142)

1. (1996) Unapproved uses of approved drugs: the physician, the package insert, and the Food and Drug Administration: subject review. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs. Pediatrics 98:143-145
2. (2002) Treatment of ADHD in children with tics: a randomized controlled trial. Neurology 58:527-536
3. Alderman J (2005) Coadministration of sertraline with cisapride or pimozide: an open-label, nonrandomized examination of pharmacokinetics and corrected QT intervals in healthy adult volunteers. Clin Ther 27:1050-1063
4. Aman MG, De Smedt G, Derivan A, Lyons B, Findling RL (2002) Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of risperidone for the treatment of disruptive behaviors in children with subaverage intelligence. Am J Psychiatr 159:1337-1346
5. Amitai Y, Frischer H (2006) Excess fatality from desipramine in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatr 45:54-60
6. Amital D, Amital H, Gross R, Kindler S, Zohar J (1994) Sinus bradycardia due to fluvoxamine overdose. Br J Psychiatr 165:553-554
7. Aronson MD, Hafez H (1986) A case of trazodone-induced ventricular tachycardia. J Clin Psychiatr 47:388-389
8. Balit CR, Isbister GK, Hackett LP, Whyte IM (2003) Quetiapine poisoning: a case series. Ann Emerg Med 42:751-758
9. Bauchner H (2000) ADHD: a new practice guideline from the American Academy of Pediatrics. Attention deficit hyperactive disorder. Arch Dis Child 83:63
10. Biederman J (1991) Sudden death in children treated with a tricyclic antidepressant. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatr 30:495-498
11. Biswas AK, Zabrocki LA, Mayes KL, Morris-Kukoski CL (2003) Cardiotoxicity associated with intentional ziprasidone and bupropion overdose. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 41:101-104
12. Blair J, Scahill L, State M, Martin A (2005) Electrocardiographic changes in children and adolescents treated with ziprasidone: a prospective study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatr 44:73-79
13. Blumer JL (1999) Off-label uses of drugs in children. Pediatrics 104:598-602
14. Bonati M, Clavenna A (2005) The epidemiology of psychotropic drug use in children and adolescents. Int Rev Psychiatr 17:181-188
15. Bont L, Bosker HA, Brus F, Yska JP, Bosch FH (1998) Torsade de pointes after pipamperone intoxication. Pharm World Sci 20:137
16. Bramble D (1997) Psychostimulants and British Child Psychiatrists. Child Psychol Psychiatr Rev 2:159-162
17. Bryant SM, Zilberstein J, Cumpston KL, Magdziarz DD, Costerisan DD (2003) A case series of ziprasidone overdoses. Vet Hum Toxicol 45:81-82
18. Catalano G, Catalano MC, Nunez CY, Walker SC (2001) Atypical antipsychotic overdose in the pediatric population. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 11:425-434
19. Chalumeau M, Treluyer JM, Salanave B, Assathiany R, Cheron G, Crocheton N, Rougeron C, Mares M, Breart G, Pons G (2000) Off label and unlicensed drug use among French office based paediatricians. Arch Dis Child 83:502-505
20. Chandran KS (1994) ECG and clonidine. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatr 33:1351-1352
21. Chiu CC, Chang WH, Huang MC, Chiu YW, Lane HY (2005) Regulardose risperidone on QTc intervals. J Clin Psychopharmacol 25:391-393
22. Citak A, Soysal DD, Ucsel R, Karabocuoglu M, Uzel N (2002) Efficacy of long duration resuscitation and magnesium sulphate treatment in amitriptyline poisoning. Eur J Emerg Med 9:63-66
23. Cohen H, Loewenthal U, Matar M, Kotler M (2001) Association of autonomic dysfunction and clozapine. Heart rate variability and risk for sudden death in patients with schizophrenia on long-term psychotropic medication. Br J Psychiatr 179:167-171
24. Combes A, Peytavin G, Theron D (2001) Conduction disturbances associated with venlafaxine. Ann Intern Med 134:166-167
25. Curran ME, Splawski I, Timothy KW, Vincent GM, Green ED, Keating MT (1995) A molecular basis for cardiac arrhythmia: HERG mutations cause long QT syndrome. Cell 80:795-803
26. Curtis LH, Masselink LE, Ostbye T, Hutchison S, Dans PE, Wright A, Krishnan RR, Schulman KA (2005) Prevalence of atypical antipsychotic drug use among commercially insured youths in the United States. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 159:362-366
27. Czekalla J, Beasley CM Jr, Dellva MA, Berg PH, Grundy S (2001) Analysis of the QTc interval during olanzapine treatment of patients with schizophrenia and related psychosis. J Clin Psychiatr 62:191-198
28. Dallaire S (2001) Thioridazine (Mellaril) and mesoridazine (Serentil): prolongation of the QTc interval. CMAJ 164:91, 95
29. de Boer RA, van Dijk TH, Holman ND, van Melle JP (2005) QT interval prolongation after sertraline overdose: a case report. BMC Emerg Med 5:5
30. de Meester A, Carbutti G, Gabriel L, Jacques JM (2001) Fatal overdose with trazodone: case report and literature review. Acta Clin Belg 56:258-261
31. Dineen S, Withrow K, Voronovitch L, Munshi F, Nawbary MW, Lippmann S (2003) QTc prolongation and high-dose olanzapine. Psychosomatics 44:174-175
32. Donmez O, Cetinkaya M, Canbek R (2005) Hemoperfusion in a child with amitriptyline intoxication. Pediatr Nephrol 20:105-107
33. dosReis S, Zito JM, Safer DJ, Gardner JF, Puccia KB, Owens PL (2005) Multiple psychotropic medication use for youths: a two-state comparison. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 15:68-77
34. Drolet B, Rousseau G, Daleau P, Cardinal R, Simard C, Turgeon J (2001) Pimozide (Orap) prolongs cardiac repolarization by blocking the rapid component of the delayed rectifier potassium current in native cardiac myocytes. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther 6:255-260
35. Dubnov G, Fogelman R, Merlob P (2005) Prolonged QT interval in an infant of a fluoxetine treated mother. Arch Dis Child 90:972-973
36. Durst R, Rosca-Rebaudengo P, Admon D (1994) Phenothiazine-associated supraventricular tachycardia. Aust NZ J Psychiatr 28:333-336
37. Efron D, Hiscock H, Sewell JR, Cranswick NE, Vance AL, Tyl Y, Luk ES (2003) Prescribing of psychotropic medications for children by Australian pediatricians and child psychiatrists. Pediatrics 111:372-375
38. Erfurth A, Loew M, Dobmeier P, Wendler G (1998) [ECG changes after paroxetine. 3 case reports]. Nervenarzt 69:629-631
39. Finlayson K, Witchel HJ, McCulloch J, Sharkey J (2004) Acquired QT interval prolongation and HERG: implications for drug discovery and development. Eur J Pharmacol 500:129-142
40. Flockhart DA, Drici MD, Kerbusch T, Soukhova N, Richard E, Pearle PL, Mahal SK, Babb VJ (2000) Studies on the mechanism of a fatal clarithromycin-pimozide interaction in a patient with Tourette syndrome. J Clin Psychopharmacol 20:317-324
41. Gbadebo TD, Trimble RW, Khoo MS, Temple J, Roden DM, Anderson ME (2002) Calmodulin inhibitor W-7 unmasks a novel electrocardiographic parameter that predicts initiation of torsade de pointes. Circulation 105:770-774
42. Gesell LB, Stephen M (2005) Toxicity following a single dose of risperidone for pediatric attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 35:549
43. Gluais P, Bastide M, Grandmougin D, Fayad G, Adamantidis M (2004) Risperidone reduces K+ currents in human atrial myocytes and prolongs repolarization in human myocardium. Eur J Pharmacol 497:215-222
44. Goodnick PJ, Jerry J, Parra F (2002) Psychotropic drugs and the ECG: focus on the QTc interval. Expert Opin Pharmacother 3:479-498
45. Gutgesell H, Atkins D, Barst R, Buck M, Franklin W, Humes R, Ringel R, Shaddy R, Taubert KA (1999) Cardiovascular monitoring of children and adolescents receiving psychotropic drugs: A statement for healthcare professionals from the Committee on Congenital Cardiac Defects, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, American Heart Association. Circulation 99:979-982
46. Guy JM, Ndre-Fouet X, Porte J, Bertrand M, Lamaud M, Verneyre H (1991) [Torsades de pointes and prolongation of the duration of QT interval after injection of droperidol]. Ann Cardiol Angeiol (Paris) 40:541-545
47. Haddad PM, Anderson IM (2002) Antipsychotic-related QTc prolongation, torsade de pointes and sudden death. Drugs 62:1649-1671
48. Harrigan EP, Miceli JJ, Anziano R, Watsky E, Reeves KR, Cutler NR, Sramek J, Shiovitz T, Middle M (2004) A randomized evaluation of the effects of six antipsychotic agents on QTc, in the absence and presence of metabolic inhibition. J Clin Psychopharmacol 24:62-69
49. Hewer W, Rost W, Gattaz WF (1995) Cardiovascular effects of fluvoxamine and maprotiline in depressed patients. Eur Arch Psychiatr Clin Neurosci 246:1-6
50. Hochberg HM, Kanter D, Houser VP (1995) Electrocardiographic findings during extended clinical trials of fluvoxamine in depression: one years experience. Pharmacopsychiatry 28:253-256
51. Hoehns JD, Fouts MM, Kelly MW, Tu KB (2001) Sudden cardiac death with clozapine and sertraline combination. Ann Pharmacother 35:862-866
52. Hoehns JD, Stanford RH, Geraets DR, Skelly KS, Lee HC, Gaul BL (2001) Torsades de pointes associated with chlorpromazine: case report and review of associated ventricular arrhythmias. Pharmacotherapy 21:871-883
53. Horrigan JP, Barnhill LJ, Courvoisie HE (1997) Olanzapine in PDD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatr 36:1166-1167
54. Hunt N, Stern TA (1995) The association between intravenous haloperidol and Torsades de Pointes. Three cases and a literature review. Psychosomatics 36:541-549
55. Isbister GK, Balit CR (2003) Bupropion overdose: QTc prolongation and its clinical significance. Ann Pharmacother 37:999-1002
56. Isbister GK, Bowe SJ, Dawson A, Whyte IM (2004) Relative toxicity of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in overdose. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 42:277-285
57. Isbister GK, Hackett LP (2003) Nefazodone poisoning: toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics using continuous data collection. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 41:167-173
58. Isbister GK, Prior FH, Foy A (2001) Citalopram-induced bradycardia and presyncope. Ann Pharmacother 35:1552-1555
59. Jackson T, Ditmanson L, Phibbs B (1997) Torsade de pointes and low-dose oral haloperidol. Arch Intern Med 157:2013-2015
60. Jensen BT, Larroude CE, Rasmussen LP, Holstein-Rathlou NH, Hojgaard MV, Agner E, Kanters JK (2004) Beat-to-beat QT dynamics in healthy subjects. Ann Noninvasive Electrocardiol 9:3-11
61. Jervell A, Lange Nielsen F (1957) Congenital deaf-mutism, functional heart disease with prolongation of the Q-T interval and sudden death. Am Heart J 54:59-68
62. Kang J, Chen XL, Rampe D (2001) The antipsychotic drugs sertindole and pimozide block erg3, a human brain K(+) channel. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 286:499-504
63. Kautzner J, Yi G, Camm AJ, Malik M (1994) Short- and long-term reproducibility of QT, QTc, and QT dispersion measurement in healthy subjects. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 17:928-937
64. Kelly CA, Dhaun N, Laing WJ, Strachan FE, Good AM, Bateman DN (2004) Comparative toxicity of citalopram and the newer antidepressants after overdose. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 42:67-71
65. Kewley GD (1999) Risperidone in comorbid ADHD and ODD/CD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatr 38:1327-1328
66. Krentz AJ, Mikhail S, Cantrell P, Hill GM (2001) Drug Points: Pseudophaeochromocytoma syndrome associated with clozapine. BMJ 322:1213
67. Kriwisky M, Perry GY, Tarchitsky D, Gutman Y, Kishon Y (1990) Haloperidol-induced torsades de pointes. Chest 98:482-484
68. Krulewicz S, Carpenter DJ, Fong R, Horrigan JP, Lipschitz A, Perera P, Wagner KD (2006) Analysis of electrocardiographic data following use of paroxetine in pediatric depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatr 45:422-430
69. Kurth J, Maguire G (2004) Pediatric case report of quetiapine overdose and QTc prolongation. Ann Clin Psychiatr 16:229-231
70. Labellarte MJ, Crosson JE, Riddle MA (2003) The relevance of prolonged QTc measurement to pediatric psychopharmacology. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatr 42:642-650
71. Laird LK, Lydiard RB, Morton WA, Steele TE, Kellner C, Thompson NM, Ballenger JC (1993) Cardiovascular effects of imipramine, fluvoxamine, and placebo in depressed outpatients. J Clin Psychiatr 54:224-228
72. Landes GM, Curran ME, Keating MT (1995) Molecular characterization and refined genomic localization of three human potassium ion channel genes. Cytogenet Cell Genet 70:280-284
73. Langlois RP, Paquette D (1994) Sustained bradycardia during fluvoxamine and buspirone intoxication. Can J Psychiatr 39:126-127
74. Lasser KE, Allen PD, Woolhandler SJ, Himmelstein DU, Wolfe SM, Bor DH (2002) Timing of new black box warnings and withdrawals for prescription medications. JAMA 287:2215-2220
75. Letsas K, Korantzopoulos P, Pappas L, Evangelou D, Efremidis M, Kardaras F (2006) QT interval prolongation associated with venlafaxine administration. Int J Cardiol 109:116-117
76. Levenson JL (1999) Prolonged QT interval after trazodone overdose. Am J Psychiatr 156:969-970
77. Lin CH, Chen MC, Wang SY, Lin CY (2004) Predictive factors for QTc prolongation in schizophrenic patients taking antipsychotics. J Formos Med Assoc 103:437-441
78. Llerena A, Berecz R, Dorado P, de la Rubia A (2004) QTc interval, CYP2D6 and CYP2C9 genotypes and risperidone plasma concentrations. J Psychopharmacol 18:189-193
79. Lofton AL, Klein-Schwartz W (2005) Atypical experience: a case series of pediatric aripiprazole exposures. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 43:151-153
80. Maloney MJ, Schwam JS (1995) Clonidine and sudden death. Pediatrics 96:1176-1177
81. Mazur A, Strasberg B, Kusniec J, Sclarovsky S (1995) QT prolongation and polymorphous ventricular tachycardia associated with trasodone-amiodarone combination. Int J Cardiol 52:27-29
82. McCracken JT, McGough J, Shah B, Cronin P, Hong D, Aman MG, Arnold LE, Lindsay R, Nash P, Hollway J, McDougle CJ, Posey D, Swiezy N, Kohn A, Scahill L, Martin A, Koenig K, Volkmar F, Carroll D, Lancor A, Tierney E, Ghuman J, Gonzalez NM, Grados M, Vitiello B, Ritz L, Davies M, Robinson J, McMahon D (2002) Risperidone in children with autism and serious behavioral problems. N Engl J Med 347:314-321
83. McNicholas F (2001) Prescribing practices of child psychiatrists in the UK. Child Adolesc Mental Health 6:166-171
84. McNicholas F (2001) Psychotropic prescribing practices of paediatricians in the UK. Child Care Health Dev 27:497-508
85. Michalets EL, Smith LK, Van Tassel ED (1998) Torsade de pointes resulting from the addition of droperidol to an existing cytochrome P450 drug interaction. Ann Pharmacother 32:761-765
86. Michalets EL, Smith LK, Van Tassel ED (1998) Torsade de pointes resulting from the addition of droperidol to an existing cytochrome P450 drug interaction. Ann Pharmacother 32:761-765
87. Moltedo JM, Porter GA, State MW, Snyder CS (2002) Sinus node dysfunction associated with lithium therapy in a child. Tex Heart Inst J 29:200-202
88. Nissen SE (2006) ADHD drugs and cardiovascular risk. N Engl J Med 354:1445-1448
89. Nykamp DL, Blackmon CL, Schmidt PE, Roberson AG (2005) QTc prolongation associated with combination therapy of levofloxacin, imipramine, and fluoxetine. Ann Pharmacother 39:543-546
90. O'Brien JM, Rockwood RP, Suh KI (1999) Haloperidol-induced torsade de pointes. Ann Pharmacother 33:1046-1050
91. Ohtani H, Odagiri Y, Sato H, Sawada Y, Iga T (2001) A comparative pharmacodynamic study of the arrhythmogenicity of antidepressants, fluvoxamine and imipramine, in guinea pigs. Biol Pharm Bull 24:550-554
92. Pappadopulos E, Intyre Ii JC, Crismon ML, Findling RL, Malone RP, Derivan A, Schooler N, Sikich L, Greenhill L, Schur SB, Felton CJ, Kranzler H, Rube DM, Sverd J, Finnerty M, Ketner S, Siennick SE, Jensen PS (2003) Treatment recommendations for the use of antipsychotics for aggressive youth (TRAAY). Part II. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatr 42:145-161
93. Peano C, Leikin JB, Hanashiro PK (1997) Seizures, ventricular tachycardia, and rhabdomyolysis as a result of ingestion of venlafaxine and lamotrigine. Ann Emerg Med 30:704-708
94. Perrault LP, Denault AY, Carrier M, Cartier R, Belisle S (2000) Torsades de pointes secondary to intravenous haloperidol after coronary bypass grafting surgery. Can J Anaesth 47:251-254
95. Pohl R, Bridges M, Rainey Jr JM, Boudoulas H, Yeragani VK (1986) Effects of trazodone and desipramine on cardiac rate and rhythm in a patient with preexisting cardiovascular disease. J Clin Psychopharmacol 6:380-381
96. Popper C, Zimnitsky B (1995) Sudden-death putatively related to desipramine treatment in a youth: a fifth case and a review of speculative mechanisms. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 5:283-300
97. Posey DJ, Walsh KH, Wilson GA, McDougle CJ (1999) Risperidone in the treatment of two very young children with autism. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 9:273-276
98. Rappley MD, Eneli IU, Mullan PB, Alvarez FJ, Wang J, Luo Z, Gardiner JC (2002) Patterns of psychotropic medication use in very young children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Dev Behav Pediatr 23:23-30
99. Ravina T, Suarez ML, Mendez-Castrillon J (1998) Fluoxetine-induced QTU interval prolongation, T wave alternans and syncope. Int J Cardiol 65:311-313
100. Reilly JG, Ayis SA, Ferrier IN, Jones SJ, Thomas SH (2000) QTc-interval abnormalities and psychotropic drug therapy in psychiatric patients. Lancet 355:1048-1052
101. Riddle MA, Geller B, Ryan N (1993) Another sudden death in a child treated with desipramine. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatr 32:792-797
102. Roden DM (1998) Taking the "idio" out of " idiosyncratic": predicting torsades de pointes. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 21:1029-1034
103. Roden DM (2004) Drug-induced prolongation of the QT interval. N Engl J Med 350:1013-1022
104. Romano C, Gemme G, Pongiglione R (1963) [Rare cardiac arrythmias of the pediatric age. II. Syncopal attacks due to paroxysmal ventricular fibrillation. (Presentation of 1st case in Italian pediatric literature)]. Clin Pediatr (Bologna) 45:656-683
105. Rothenhausler HB, Hoberl C, Ehrentrout S, Kapfhammer HP, Weber MM (2000) Suicide attempt by pure citalopram overdose causing long-lasting severe sinus bradycardia, hypotension and syncopes: successful therapy with a temporary pacemaker. Pharmacopsychiatr 33:150-152
106. Sala M, Vicentini A, Brambilla P, Montomoli C, Jogia JR, Caverzasi E, Bonzano A, Piccinelli M, Barale F, De Ferrari GM (2005) QT interval prolongation related to psychoactive drug treatment: a comparison of monotherapy versus polytherapy. Ann Gen Psychiatr 4:1
107. Sanguinetti MC, Jiang C, Curran ME, Keating MT (1995) A mechanistic link between an inherited and an acquired cardiac arrhythmia: HERG encodes the IKr potassium channel. Cell 81:299-307
108. Sawant S, Daviss SR (2004) Seizures and prolonged QTc with atomoxetine overdose. Am J Psychiatr 161:757
109. Scahill L, Leckman JF, Schultz RT, Katsovich L, Peterson BS (2003) A placebo-controlled trial of risperidone in Tourette syndrome. Neurology 60:1130-1135
110. Schirm E, Tobi H, Zito JM, de Jongvan den Berg LT (2001) Psychotropic medication in children: a study from the Netherlands. Pediatrics 108:E25
111. Schreier HA (1998) Risperidone for young children with mood disorders and aggressive behavior. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 8:49-59
112. Schur SB, Sikich L, Findling RL, Malone RP, Crismon ML, Derivan A, Intyre Ii JC, Pappadopulos E, Greenhill L, Schooler N, Van Orden K, Jensen PS (2003) Treatment recommendations for the use of antipsychotics for aggressive youth (TRAAY). Part I: a review. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatr 42:132-144
113. Schwartz PJ, Moss AJ, Vincent GM, Crampton RS (1993) Diagnostic criteria for the long QT syndrome. An update. Circulation 88:782-784
114. Shah RR (2005) Drug-induced QT dispersion: does it predict the risk of torsade de pointes? J Electrocardiol 38:10-18
115. Shah RR (2004) Drug-induced QT interval prolongation: regulatory perspectives and drug development. Ann Med 36(Suppl 1):47-52
116. Shapiro E, Shapiro AK, Fulop G, Hubbard M, Mandeli J, Nordlie J, Phillips RA (1989) Controlled study of haloperidol, pimozide and placebo for the treatment of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Arch Gen Psychiatr 46:722-730
117. Shapiro LE, Shear NH (1999) Drug-drug interactions: how scared should we be? CMAJ 161:1266-1267
118. Shea S, Turgay A, Carroll A, Schulz M, Orlik H, Smith I, Dunbar F (2004) Risperidone in the treatment of disruptive behavioral symptoms in children with autistic and other pervasive developmental disorders. Pediatrics 114:e634-e641
119. Shimizu W, Antzelevitch C (2000) Differential effects of beta-adrenergic agonists and antagonists in LQT1, LQT2 and LQT3 models of the long QT syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol 35:778-786
120. Siddiqui MA, Khan IA (2004) Nefazodone-associated torsade de pointes. Int J Cardiol 93:85-86
121. Slaveska K, Hollis C, Bramble D (1998) The use of antipsychotics by the child and adolescent psychiatrists. Psychiat Bull 22:685-687
122. Spiller HA, Lintner CP, Winter ML (2005) Atomoxetine ingestions in children: a report from poison centers. Ann Pharmacother 39:1045-1048
123. Stampfer H, Swanepoel P (2005) Severe tachycardia following low-dose clozapine treatment. Australas Psychiatr 13:80-82
124. Stollberger C, Huber JO, Finsterer J (2005) Antipsychotic drugs and QT prolongation. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 20:243-251
125. Su KP, Lane HY, Chuang CL, Chen KP, Shen WW (2004) Olanzapine-induced QTc prolongation in a patient with Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. Schizophr Res 66:191-192
126. Swanson JR, Jones GR, Krasselt W, Denmark LN, Ratti F (1997) Death of two subjects due to imipramine and desipramine metabolite accumulation during chronic therapy: a review of the literature and possible mechanisms. J Forensic Sci 42:335-339
127. Trenton A, Currier G, Zwemer F (2003) Fatalities associated with therapeutic use and overdose of atypical antipsychotics. CNS Drugs 17:307-324
128. Varley CK (2000) Sudden death of a child treated with imipramine. Case study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 10:321-325
129. Varley CK, McClellan J (1997) Case study: two additional sudden deaths with tricyclic antidepressants. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatr 36:390-394
130. Varma S, Achan K (1999) Dysrhythmia associated with clozapine. Aust NZ J Psychiatr 33:118-119
131. Varriale P (2001) Fluoxetine (Prozac) as a cause of QT prolongation. Arch Intern Med 161:612
132. Vieweg WV, Schneider RK, Wood MA (2005) Torsade de pointes in a patient with complex medical and psychiatric conditions receiving low-dose quetiapine. Acta Psychiatr Scand 112:318-322
133. Ward OC (1964) A New Familial Cardiac Syndrome In Children. J Ir Med Assoc 54:103-106
134. Weizman A, Weitz R, Szekely GA, Tyano S, Belmaker RH (1984) Combination of neuroleptic and stimulant treatment in attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. J Am Acad Child Psychiatr 23:295-298
135. Welch R, Chue P (2000) Antipsychotic agents and QT changes. J Psychiatr Neurosci 25:154-160
136. Wernicke JF, Faries D, Girod D, Brown J, Gao H, Kelsey D, Quintana H, Lipetz R, Michelson D, Heiligenstein J (2003) Cardiovascular effects of atomoxetine in children, adolescents, and adults. Drug Saf 26:729-740
137. Wernicke JF, Kratochvil CJ (2002) Safety profile of atomoxetine in the treatment of children and adolescents with ADHD. J Clin Psychiatr 63(Suppl 12):50-55
138. Wilens TE, Biederman J, Baldessarini RJ, Geller B, Schleifer D, Spencer TJ, Birmaher B, Goldblatt A (1996) Cardiovascular effects of therapeutic doses of tricyclic antidepressants in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatr 35:1491-1501
139. Wilens TE, Biederman J, March JS, Wolkow R, Fine CS, Millstein RB, Faraone SV, Geller D, Spencer TJ (1999) Absence of cardiovascular adverse effects of sertraline in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatr 38:573-577
140. Wilting I, Smals OM, Holwerda NJ, Meyboom RH, de Bruin ML, Egberts TC (2006) QTc prolongation and torsades de pointes in an elderly woman taking fluoxetine. Am J Psychiatr 163:325
141. Yerrabolu M, Prabhudesai S, Tawam M, Winter L, Kamalesh M (2000) Effect of risperidone on QT interval and QT dispersion in the elderly. Heart Dis 2:10-12
142. Zito JM, Safer DJ, dosReis S, Gardner JF, Boles M, Lynch F (2000) Trends in the prescribing of psychotropic medications to preschoolers. JAMA 283:1025-1030