Impact of long-term civil disorders and wars on the trajectory of HIV epidemics in sub-Saharan Africa

Sahara J

Volumn 1, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 114-127

  Gisselquist, David ^a  

^a NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

Africa; Epidemiology; HIV; Risk factors; Wars

Indexed keywords

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA; ARTICLE; CIVIL DISORDER; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; POPULATION DENSITY; PREVALENCE; STATISTICS; WAR;

ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME; AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA; CIVIL DISORDERS; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; POPULATION DENSITY; PREVALENCE; WAR;

EID: 34147115007     PISSN: 17290376     EISSN: 18134424     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/17290376.2004.9724834     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. Abokor, A.Y. (2000). HIV/AIDS assessment: sero-prevalence survey. Presented at Institute for Practical Research and Training's 2nd Post-War Reconstruction Strategies Conference, Hargeisa 20-25 July 2000. Available: http: //www.iprt.org/HIV%20survey.htm (accessed 3 April 2004).
2. Bakari, M., Lyamuya, E., Mugusi, F., Aris, E., Chale, S., Magao, P. et al. (2000).The prevalence and incidence of HIV-1 infection and syphilis in a cohort of police officers in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: a potential population for HIV vaccine trials. AIDS, 14(3), 313-320.
3. Barreto, J., Inglold, L., De La Cruz, F., Jorge, S., De Sousa, C.P., Leandro, J. et al. (1988). HIV prevalence in Mozambican blood donors (1987). Proceedings of the IV International Conference on AIDS, Stockholm 15-16 June 1988. Abstract 5132.
4. Barreto, J., Liljestrand, J., De Sousa, C.P., Bergstrom, B., Bottinger, B., Biberfeld, G. et al. (1993). HIV-1 and HIV-2 antibodies in pregnant women in the city of Maputo, Mozambuque. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases, 25(6), 685-688.
5. Bizimumgu, C., Ntilivamunda, A., Tshimana, M., Nzaramba, D., Bugingo, G, Ndikuyeze, A. et al. (1989). Nationwide community-based serological survey of HIV-1 and other human retrovirus infections in a Central African country. Lancet, i(8644), 941-943.
6. Boerma, J.T., Gregson, S., Nyamukapa, C. & Urassa, M. (2003). Understanding the uneven spread of HIV within Africa: comparative study of biologic, behavioral, and contextual factors in rural populations in Tanzania and Zimbabwe. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 30(10), 779-787.
7. Bottinger, B., Palme, I.B., da Costa, J.L., Dias, L.F. & Biberfeld, G. (1988). Prevalence of HIV-1 and HIV-2/HTLV-IV infections in Luanda and Cabinda, Angola. Journal of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 1(1), 8-12.
8. Bulterys, M., Chao, A., Habimana, P., Dushimimana, A., Nawrocki, P. & Saah, A. (1994). Incident HIV-1 infection in a cohort of young women in Butare, Rwanda. AIDS, 8(11), 1585-1591.
9. Burans, J.P., Fox, E., Omar, M.A., Farah, A.H., Abbass, S., Yusef, S. et al. (1990). HIV infection surveillance in Mogadishu, Somalia. East African Medical Journal, 67(7), 466-472.
10. Buve, A., Caraël, M., Hayes, R.J., Auvert, B., Ferry, B., Robinson, N.J. et al. (2001). The multicenter study on factors determining the differential spread of HIV in four African cities: summary and conclusions. AIDS, 15(suppl. 4), S127-S131.
11. Campbell, G. (2004). Blood diamonds: tracing the deadly path of the world's most precious stones. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Westview Press.
12. Cohen, J. (1997).The rise and fall of Project SIDA. Science, 278(5343), 1565-1568.
13. Cossa, H.A., Gloyd, S., Vaz, R.G., Folgosa, E., Simbine, E., Diniz, M. et al. (1994). Syphilis and HIV infection among displaced pregnant women in rural Mozambique. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 5(2), 117-123.
14. Dallabetta, G.A., Miotti, P.G., Chiphangwi, J.D., Saah, A.J., Liomba, G., Odaka, N. et al. (1993). High socioeconomic status is a risk for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection but not for sexually transmitted diseases in women in Malawi: implications for HIV control. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 167(1), 36-42.
15. Doczeova, A., Liskova, A., & Kremery, Jr., V. (2003). Low antibiotic resistance in respiratory pathogens in a remote rural area in southern Sudan that was isolated by civil war for 18 years. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 37(11) 1582.
16. Europaworld (2004). Liberia: peace process 'irreversible.' Available: http: //www.europaworld.org/week160/liberia16104.htm (accessed 3 April 2004).
17. Fernandes, A., Vaz, R.G., Esteves, A. & Noya, A. (1992). HIV seroprevalence among war displaced population in a rural settlement (Inhaca Island) in Mozambique. Proceedings of the VIII International Conference on AIDS, Amsterdam 19-24 July, Abstract PoC 4708.
18. Finnegan, W. (1992). A complicated war. Berkeley: University of California Press.
19. Gisselquist, D. & Potterat, J.J. (2003). Heterosexual transmission of HIV in Africa: an empirical estimate. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 14(3), 162-173.
20. Gisselquist, D., Potterat, J.J. & Brody, S. (2004). Running on empty: sexual co-factors are insufficient to fuel Africa’s turbocharged HIV epidemic. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 15(7), 442-452.
21. Green, E.C. (2003). Rethinking AIDS prevention: learning from success in developing countries. Westport: Praeger.
22. Green, S.D.R., Mokili, J.K.L., Nganzi, M., Davies, A.G., Hardy, I.R.B., Jackson, D.I. et al. (1992). Seroprevalence and determinants of HIV-1 infection in pregnancy in rural Zaire. Proceedings of the VIII International Conference on AIDS, Amsterdam 19-24 July, Abstract PoC 4016.
23. Hamers, F.F. & Downs A.M. (2004).The changing face of the HV epidemic in western Europe: what are the implications for public health policies? Lancet, 364(9428), 83-94.
24. Hargreaves, J.R. & Glynn, J.R. (2002). Educational attainment and HIV-1 infection in developing countries. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 7(6), 489-498.
25. Hargreaves, J.R., Morison, L.A., Chege, J., Rutenberg, N., Kahindo, M., Weiss, H.A. et al. (2002). Socioeconomic status and risk of HIV infection in an urban population in Kenya. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 7(9), 793-802.
26. Hooper, E. (2000). The river. London: Penguin Books.
27. International Crisis Group (2004). Liberia: security challenges. Available: http: //www.africa.upenn.edu/afrfocus/afrfocus111203.html (accessed 3 April 2004).
28. Jama, H., Grillner, L., Biberfield, G., Osman, S., Isse, A., Abdirahman, M. et al. (1987). Sexually transmitted infections in various population groups in Mogadishu, Somalia. Genitourinary Medicine, 63(5), 329-332.
29. Kaiser, R., Spiegel, P., Salama, P., Brady, W., Bell, E., Bond, K. et al. (no date). HIV/AIDS seroprevalence and behavioral risk factor survey in Sierra Leone, April 2002. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
30. Kaiser, R., Kebdamo, T., Lane, J., Kessia, G., Handzel, T., Downing, R. et al. (2004). HIV/STI prevalence and risk factor surveys in Yei and Rumbek, South Sudan, 2002/2003. Proceedings of the XV International Conference on AIDS. 11-16 July 2004. Abstract No.TuPeC4739.
31. Kasozi, A.B.K. (1999). The social origins of violence in Uganda. Kampala: Fountain Publishers.
32. Kenya, Central Bureau of Statistics (2003). Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2003, preliminary report. Nairobi: Central Bureau of Statistics.
33. Killewo, J., Nyamuryekunge, K., Sandstrom, A., Bredberg-Raden, U., Wall, S., Mhalu, F. et al. (1990). Prevalence of HIV-1 infection in the Kagera region of Tanzania: a population-based study. AIDS, 4(11), 1081-1085.
34. Killewo, J., Dahlgren, L. & Sandstrom, A. (1994). Socio-geographical patterns of HIV-1 transmission in Kagera region, Tanzania. Social Science and Medicine, 38(1), 129-134.
35. Korber B, Muldoon M, Theiler J, Gao, F, Gupta, R., Lapedes, A. et al. (2000).Timing the ancestor of the HIV-1 pandemic strains. Science, 288(5472), 1789-1796.
36. Kosia, A., Makiu, E., Mansaray, N. & Koker, P. (1992). Behavioural, epidemiological and socio-demographic factors associated with HIV transmission among different population groups in Sierra Leone. Proceedings of the VIII International Conference on AIDS, Amsterdam 19-24 July 1992, Abstract No. PoC 4160.
37. Kwesigabo, G. (2001). Trends of HIV infection in the Kagera region of Tanzania 1987-2000 (Umea University Medial Dissertations, new series no. 710). Umea: Umea University.
38. Laurence, J. (2000). HIV/AIDS in South Africa: the epidemic in numbers. AIDS Reader, 10(11), 620-621.
39. Lemey, P., Pybus, O.G., Wang, B., Saksena, N.K., Salemi, M. & Vandamme, A.-M. (2003).Tracing the origin and history of the HIV-2 epidemic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 100(11), 6588-6592.
40. Mann, J.M., Francis, H., Quinn, T.C., Bila, K., Asila P.K., Bosenge, N. et al. (1986). HIV seroprevalence among hospital workers in Kinshasa, Zaire. JAMA, 256(22), 3099-3102.
41. Martin, H.L., Jackson, D.J., Mandaliya, K., Bwayo, J., Rakwar, J.P., Nyange, P. et al. (1994). Preparation for AIDS vaccine evaluation in Mombasa, Kenya: establishment of seronegative cohorts of commercial sex workers and trucking company employees. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 10(suppl. 2), S235-S237.
42. McCarthy, M.C. & El Hag, A.E.T. (1990). HIV-1 infection in Juba, Southern Sudan. Proceedings of the VI International Conference on AIDS, San Francisco 20-21 June 1990, Abstract FC 605.
43. Melbye, M., Njelesani, E.K., Bayley, A., Mukelabai, K., Manuwele, J.K., Bowa, F.J. et al. (1986). Evidence for heterosexual transmission and clinical manifestations of human immunodeficiency virus infection and related conditions in Lusaka, Zambia. Lancet, ii(8516), 1113-1115.
44. Melo, J., Beby-Defaux, A., Faria, C., Guiraud, G., Folgosa, E., Barreto, A. et al. (2000). HIV and HTLV prevalence among women seen for sexually transmitted diseases or pregnancy follow-up in Maputo, Mozambique. Journal of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 23(2), 203-204.
45. Mulanga-Kabeya, C., Nzilambi, N., Edidi, B., Minlangu, M., Tshimpaka, T., Kambembo, L. et al. (1998). Evidence of stable HIV seroprevalence in selected populations in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. AIDS, 12(8), 905-910.
46. Nahmias, A.J., Weiss, J., Yao, X., Lee, F., Kodsi R., Schanfield, M. et al. (1986). Evidence for human infection with an HTLV III/LAV-like virus in Central Africa, 1959. Lancet, i(8492), 1279-1280.
47. Newman, L.M., Miguel, F., Jemusse, B.B., Macome, A.G. & Newman, R.D. (2001). HIV seroprevalence among military blood donors in Manica Province, Mozambique. International Journal of STD AIDS, 12(4), 225-228.
48. Nur, Y.A., Groen, J., Elmi, A.M., Ott, A. & Osterhaus, A.D.M.E. (2000). Prevalence of serum antibodies against bloodborne and sexually transmitted agents in selected groups in Somalia. Epidemiology and Infection, 124(1), 137-141.
49. Nzilambi, N., De Cock, K.M., Forthal, D.N., Francis, H., Ryder, R.W., Malebe, I. et al. (1988).The prevalence of infection with human immunodeficiency virus over a 10-year period in rural Zaire. New England Journal of Medicine, 318(5), 276-279.
50. Orroth, K.K., Korenromp, E.L., White, R.G., Changalucha, J., de Vlas, S.J., Gray, R.H. et al. (2003). Comparison of STD prevalence in the Mwanza, Rakai, and Masaka trial populations: the role of selection bias and diagnostic errors. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 79(2), 98-105.
51. Packard, R. & Epstein, P. (1991). Epidemiologists, social scientists, and the structure of medical research on AIDS in Africa. Social Science and Medicine, 33(7), 771-783.
52. Peace Pledge Union Online (2004a).Wars and armed conflicts since 1945 — Africa. Available: http: //www.ppu.org.uk/war/countries/africa/africa_index.html (accessed 6 February 2004).
53. Peace Pledge Union Online (2004b). Sierra Leone. Available: http: //www.ppu.org.uk/war/countries/africa/sierra_leone.html (accessed on 6 February 2004).
54. Peace Pledge Union Online (2004c). Recent events, conflict background. Available: http: //www.ppu.org.uk/war/countries/africa/congo_dr.html (accessed on 6 February 2004).
55. Peace Pledge Union Online (2004d). Recent events and conflict background. Available: http: //ppu.org.uk/war/countries/africa/angola.html (accessed on 6 February 2004)
56. Peace Pledge Union Online (2004e). Current situation and conflict background. Available: http: //www.ppu.org.uk/war/countries/africa/somalia.html (accessed on 6 February 2004).
57. Piedade, J., Venenno, T., Prieto, E., Alburquerque, R., Esteves, A., Parreira, R. et al. (2000). Longstanding presence of HIV-2 infection in Guinea-Bissau (West Africa). Acta Tropica, 76(12), 119-124.
58. Poulsen, A-G., Aaby, P., Jensen, H. & Dias, F. (2000). Risk factors for HIV-2 seropositivity among older people in Guinea-Bissau. A search for the early history of HIV-2 infection. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases, 32(2), 169-175.
59. Prunier, G., & Gisselquist, R.M. (2003).The Sudan: a successfully failed state. In R. Rotberg (Ed.), State failure and state weakness in a time of terror (pp. 101-127). Washington DC: Brookings.
60. Ryder, R., Ndilu, M., Hassig, S.E., Kamenga, M., Sequeira, D., Kashamuka, M. et al. (1990). Heterosexual transmission of HIV among employees and their spouses at two large businesses in Zaire. AIDS, 4(8), 725-732.
61. Salama, P. & Dondero, T.J. (2001). HIV surveillance in complex emergencies. AIDS, 15(suppl 3), S4-S12.
62. Santos-Ferreira, M.O., Cohen, T., Lourenco, M.H., Almeida, M.J.M., Chamaret, S. & Montagnier, L. (1990). A study of seroprevalence of HIV-1 and HIV-2 in six provinces of People's Republic of Angola: clues to the spread of HIV infection. Journal of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 3(8), 780-786.
63. Scott, D.A., Corwin, A.L., Constantine, N.T., Omar, M.A., Guled, A., Yusuf, M. et al. (1991). Low prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1), HIV-2, and human T cell lymphotrophic virus-1 infection in Somalia. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 45(6), 653-659.
64. Seale, J. (1986). AIDS virus infection: prognosis and transmission; Dr Seale replies below [letter]. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 79(2), 122-123.
65. Serwadda, D., Sewankambo, N.K., Carswell, J.W., Bayley, A.C., Tedder, R.S., Weiss, R.A. et al. (1985). Slim disease: a new disease in Uganda and its association with HTLV-III infection. Lancet, ii(8460), 849-852.
66. Shisana, O. & Simbayi, L.C. (2002). Nelson Mandela/HSRC Study of HIV/AIDS: South African national HIV prevalence, behavioural risks and mass media household survey 2002. Cape Town: Human Sciences Research Council.
67. Slutsker, L., Cabeza, J., Wirima, J.J. & Steketee, R.W. (1994). HIV-1 infection among women of reproductive age in a rural district in Malawi. AIDS, 8(9), 1337-1340.
68. Tanser, F., LeSueur, D., Solarsh, G. & Wilkinson, D. (2000). HIV heterogeneity and proximity of homestead to roads in rural South Africa: an exploration using a geographical information system. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 5(1), 40-46.
69. Tarantola, D. & Schwartlander, B. (1997). HIV/AIDS epidemics in sub-Saharan Africa: dynamism, diversity, and discrete declines? AIDS, 11(suppl B), S5-S21.
70. UNAIDS (1988). Report on the Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic-June 1998. Geneva: UNAIDS.
71. UNAIDS (2000a). AIDS in Africa Country by Country. Geneva: UNAIDS.
72. UNAIDS (2000b). Angola: Epidemiological Fact Sheet on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2000 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
73. UNAIDS (2000c). Central African Republic: Epidemiological Fact Sheet on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2000 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
74. UNAIDS (2000d). Democratic Republic of the Congo: Epidemiological Fact Sheet on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2000 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
75. UNAIDS (2000e). Ethiopia: Epidemiological Fact Sheet on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2000 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
76. UNAIDS (2000f). Guinea: Epidemiological Fact Sheet on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2000 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
77. UNAIDS (2000g). Liberia: Epidemiological Fact Sheet on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2000 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
78. UNAIDS (2000h). Rwanda: Epidemiological Fact Sheet on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2000 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
79. UNAIDS (2000i). Sierra Leone: Epidemiological Fact Sheet on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2000 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
80. UNAIDS (2000j). Tanzania: Epidemiological Fact Sheet on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2000 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
81. UNAIDS (2002a). Report on the Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic 2002. Geneva: UNAIDS.
82. UNAIDS (2002b). Côte d’Ivoire. Epidemiological Fact Sheets on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2002 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
83. UNAIDS (2002c). Djibouti. Epidemiological Fact Sheets on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2002 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
84. UNAIDS (2002d). Kenya. Epidemiological Fact Sheets on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2002 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
85. UNAIDS (2002e). Malawi: Epidemiological Fact Sheets on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2002 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
86. UNAIDS (2002f). Mozambique: Epidemiological Fact Sheets on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2002 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
87. UNAIDS (2002g). Namibia. Epidemiological Fact Sheets on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2002 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
88. UNAIDS (2002h). Somalia: Epidemiological Fact Sheets on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2002 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
89. UNAIDS (2002i). Sudan. Epidemiological Fact Sheets on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2002 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
90. UNAIDS (2002j). Uganda. Epidemiological Fact Sheets on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2002 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
91. UNAIDS (2002k). Zambia: Epidemiological Fact Sheets on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2002 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
92. UNAIDS (2002l). Zimbabwe: Epidemiological Fact Sheets on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2002 update. Geneva: UNAIDS.
93. United Nations (2004). Sierra Leone — UNAMSIL [United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone]-Background. Available: http: //www.un.org/Depts/DPKO/Missions/ unomsil/UnomsilB.htm (accessed 6 February 2004).
94. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2003). Human Development Report 2003. New York: UNDP.
95. United States Agency for International Development (USAID) (2003). Country profile HIV/AIDS: Angola. Washington, DC: USAID. Available: http: //www.usaid.gov/pop_health/aids/Countries/africa/angola.html (accessed on 3 April 2004).
96. USAID (2004). Guinean National HIV Seroprevalence Survey. Available: http: //www.usaid.gov/gn/health/news/021011_hivsurvey/abstract.htm (accessed 5 February 2004).
97. United States (US) Census Bureau (2000). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Data Base. June 2000 release.Washington, DC: US Census Bureau.
98. US Census Bureau (2003). HIV/AIDS Surveillance Data Base. June 2003 release. Washington, DC, US Census Bureau.
99. Vaz, R.G., Gloyd, S., Folgosa, E & Kreiss, J. (1995). Syphilis and HIV infection among prisoners in Maputo, Mozambique. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 1995, 6(1), 42-46.
100. Vidal, N., Peeters, M., Mulanga-Kabeya, C., Nzilambi, N., Robertson, D., Ilunga, W. et al. (2000). Unprecedented degree of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) group M genetic diversity in the Democratic Republic of Congo suggests that the HIV-1 pandemic originated in Central Africa. Journal of Virology, 74(22), 10489-10507.
101. Vuylsteke, B., Bastos, R., Barreto, J., Crucitti, T., Folgosa, E., Mondlane, J. et al. (1993). High prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases in a rural area of Mozambique. Genitourinary Medicine, 69(6), 427-430.
102. Watts, D.M., Corwin, A.L., Omar, M.A. & Hyams, K.C. (1994). Low risk of sexual transmission of hepatitis C virus in Somalia. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 88(1), 55-56.
103. Wilkins, A., Ricard, D., Todd, J., Whittle, H., Dias, F. & Da Silva, A.P. (1993).The epidemiology of HIV infections in a rural area of Guinea-Bissau. AIDS, 7(8), 1119-1122.
104. Woodruff, P.W.R., Morrill, J.C., Burans, J.P., Hyams, K.C. & Woody, J.N. (1988).A study of viral and rickettsial exposure and causes of fever in Juba, southern Sudan. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 82(5), 761-766.
105. World Health Organization (WHO), UN High Commission for Refugees & UNAIDS. (1996). Guidelines for HIV interventions in emergency settings. Geneva: WHO.
106. WHO (2003). Reconciling antenatal clinic-based surveillance and population-based survey estimates of HIV prevalence in sub-Saharan Africa. Geneva: WHO.
107. WHO, Regional Office for Africa (WHO/AFRO) (2003). HIV/AIDS epidemiological surveillance update for the WHO Africa region, 2002. Zimbabwe: WHO/AFRO.