Reconstructing the Rhône: The cultural politics of nature and nation in contemporary France, 1945-1997

French Historical Studies

Volumn 27, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 765-799

  Pritchard, Sara B ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34047247132     PISSN: 00161071     EISSN: 15275493     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/00161071-27-4-765     Document Type: Review

References (227)

1. Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, trans. Siân Reynolds, 2 vols. (New York, 1988), 1: 7.
2. Richard White, "The Nationalization of Nature," Journal of American History 86 (1999): 976-86.
3. For recent secondary literature on the relationship between the state and nature, see Richard Drayton, Nature's Government: Science, Imperial Britain, and the "Improvement" of the World (New Haven, CT, 2000)
4. ; Stuart McCook, States of Nature: Science, Agriculture, and Environment in the Spanish Caribbean, 1760-1940 (Austin, TX, 2002);
5. Chandra Mukerji, Territorial Ambitions and the Gardens of Versailles (Cambridge, 1997);
6. Mukerji, "Cartography, Entrepreneurialism, and Power in the Reign of Louis XIV: The Case of the Canal du Midi" (paper presented at the Conference on Commerce and the Representation of Nature in Early Modern Europe, Clark Library, University of California, Los Angeles, 2000);
7. James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, CT, 1998);
8. and K. Sivaramakrishnan, Modern Forests: Statemaking and Environmental Change in Colonial Eastern India (Stanford, CA, 1999).
9. While the literatures on national identity and post-1945 modernization in France are vast, historical studies of "l'aménagement du Rhône" are limited in number as well as in analytic approach. Key secondary works include Jacques Bethemont, Le thème de l'eau dans la vallée du Rhône: Essai sur la genèse d'un espace hydraulique, 2 vols. (Saint-Etienne, 1972);
10. Jean-Paul Bravard, Le Rhône: Du Léman à Lyon (Lyon, 1987);
11. and Alexandre Giandou, La Compagnie nationale du Rhône (1933-1998): Histoire d'un partenaire régional de l'Etat (Grenoble, 1999).
12. Gabrielle Hecht, The Radiance of France: Nuchar Power and National Identity after World War II (Cambridge, 1998).
13. Scholars in the history of science and technology have suggested how theoretical conceptualizations of this mutually constitutive relationship have changed over time. The work of Bruno Latour is especially influential. A few secondary works that illustrate this methodological point in different historical and cultural contexts include Francesca Bray, Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China (Berkeley, CA, 1997);
14. Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca, NY, 1995);
15. Hecht, Radiance of France;
16. and Donald MacKenzie, Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance (Cambridge, 1990).
17. Scott, Seeing Like a State, 4.
18. Quoted in Giandou, Compagnie nationale du Rhône, 33.
19. Ironically, Génissiat and the Herriot port are the two projects that do not meet the CNR's multipurpose mandate, but the rest of the agency's projects follow the model of Donzère-Mondragon outlined below.
20. For overviews of the history of the CNR and its projects, see Bethemont, Thème de l'eau, vol. 2, chaps. 3-4;
21. Sara B. Pritchard, "Recreating the Rhône: Nature and Technology in France since World War II" (PhD diss. , Stanford University, 2001), esp. chaps. 1 and 3.
22. Giandou, Compagnie nationale du Rhône, 18-19, 50-53;
23. Pritchard, "Recreating the Rhône," chap. 1.
24. On the relationship between the French state and economy, see Richard F. Kuisel, Capitalism and the State in Modern France: Renovation and Economic Management in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1981).
25. On engineering hierarchy within the CNR, see Giandou, Compagnie nationale du Rhône, 59-64, 135.
26. The secondary literature on French engineering is vast. The key works include Ken Alder, "A Revolution to Measure: The Political Economy of the Metric System in France," in The Values of Precision, ed. Norton Wise (Princeton, NJ, 1995);
27. Alder, Engineering the Revolution (Princeton, NJ, 1997);
28. Reed G. Geiger, "Planning the French Canals: The 'Becquey Plan' of 1820-1822," Journal of Economic History 44 (1984): 329-39;
29. Hecht, Radiance of France; George G. Humphreys, Taylorism in France, 1904-1920: The Impact of Scientific Management on Factory Relations and Society (New York, 1986);
30. Eda Kranakis, "Social Determinants of Engineering Practice," Social Studies of Science 19 (1989): 5-70;
31. Kranakis, Constructing a Bridge: An Exploration of Engineering Culture, Design, and Research in Nineteenth-Century France and America (Cambridge, 1997);
32. Richard F. Kuisel, "Technocrats and Public Economic Policy: From the Third to the Fourth Republic," Journal of European Economic History 2 (1973): 53-99;
33. Theodore Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, NJ, 1995);
34. Luc Rouban, L'Etat et la science: La politique publique de la science et de la technologie (Paris, 1988);
35. Terry Shinn, "From 'Corps' to 'Profession': The Emergence and Definition of Industrial Engineering in Modern France," in The Organization of Science and Technology in France, 1808-1914, ed. R. Fox and G. Weisz (New York, 1980);
36. Cecil O. Smith, "The Longest Run: Public Engineers and Planning in France," American Historical Review 95 (1990): 657-92;
37. Ezra N. Suleiman, Politics, Power, and Bureaucracy in France: The Administrative Elite (Princeton, NJ, 1974);
38. Suleiman, Elites in French Society: The Politics of Survival (Princeton, NJ, 1978);
39. Rosemary Wakeman, "La Ville en Vol: Toulouse and the Cultural Legacy of the Airplane," French Historical Studies (1992): 769-90;
40. and Françoise Zonabend, La presqu'île au nucléaire (Paris, 1989).
41. In addition to the work of Bravard, Bethemont, and Giandou, I draw on the following sources to situate the Rhône and the CNR in a national history of river management in modern France: Bernard Barraqué, Les politiques de l'eau en Europe (Paris, 1995);
42. Francisco Nunes Correia, ed. , Institutions for Water Resources Management in Europe, 2 vols. (Rotterdam, 1998);
43. M. Loriferne, 40 ans de politique de l'eau en France (Paris, 1987);
44. and Ludwik A. Teclaff, The River Basin in History and Law (The Hague, 1967).
45. For a brief discussion of flooding throughout France in 1855-56, see Tamara L. Whited, Forests and Peasant Politics in Modern France (New Haven, CT, 2000), 53-54. A number of the books on French rivers or river management from the mid-nineteenth through the mid-twentieth centuries allude to these floods.
46. Two examples are M. Maurice Champion, Recherches historiques sur les inondations du Rhône et de la Loire (Paris, 1856);
47. and Antoine Vacher, "Fleuves et rivières de France: Etude sur les documents réunis par l'administration des Ponts et chaussées" (thesis, Université de Rennes, 1908).
48. Michelet is quoted in Albert Breittmayer, Le Rhône: Sa navigation depuis les temps anciens jusqu'à nos jours (Lyon, 1904), 11;
49. in Jean Michel, "Le problème du Rhône: L'aménagement intégral du fleuve. Son triple point de vue: Navigation, forces motrices, irrigations" (PhD diss. , Ecole des Sciences Politiques, 1932), 1;
50. and in Gilbert Tournier, Rhône, dieu conquis (Paris, 1952), 39.
51. See also André Roussilhon, "L'utilisation du Rhône au point de vue de la navigation et de l'irrigation" (PhD diss. , Faculté de Droit, Université de Paris, 1914), 33.
52. On Vauban, see Bethemont, Thème de l'eau, 1:123.
53. On Madame de Sévigné, see Daniel Bideau, De Lyon à Valence au gré du Rhône (Lyon, 1982), 15;
54. Gabriel Faure, The Banks of the Rhone from Lyons to Arles, trans. Frank Kemp (Grenoble, 1922), 67;
55. and Pierre George, Les pays de la Saône et du Rhône (Paris, 1946), 193.
56. Champion, Recherches historiques;
57. Vacher, "Fleuves et rivières de France. "
58. Biographies of the Rhône include Louis Barron, Le Rhône (Paris, 1891);
59. Breittmayer, Rhône;
60. Faure, Banks of the Rhône;
61. George, Pays de la Saône et du Rhône;
62. Charles Lenthéric, La région du Bas-Rhône (Paris, 1881);
63. and Charles Lenthéric, Du Saint-Gothard à la mer: Le Rhône, histoire d'un fleuve (Paris, 1905).
64. Books or theses focusing on the political and economic potential of the Rhône include Louis Bordeaux, "L'aménagement du Rhône: Etude d'économie politique" (PhD diss. , Université de Lyon, 1919);
65. Jean Comte, "Pour une politique maritime et fluviale: La Suisse, la Méditerranée, le Rhône" (thesis, Université de Fribourg, 1947);
66. Michel, "Problème du Rhône";
67. and Roussilhon, "Utilisation du Rhône. "
68. Frédéric Mistral, Le poème du Rhône en XII chantes: Texte provençal et traduction française (Paris, 1897).
69. On the modernizing efforts of the Third Republic, the classic is Eugen Weber, From Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914 (Stanford, CA, 1976).
70. Henri Le Masson, "L'aménagement du Rhône de Genève à Donzère-Mondragon," France Illustration, June 19, 1948, 613-15;
71. Marcel Carrière, "Découverte de la France, pays des merveilles, IX: Donzère-, capitale du Rhône," Détective, l'hebdomadaire des secrets du monde 264 (1951).
72. Available in Lyon, Compagnie Nationale du Rhône, Documentation, unarchived press clippings. All documents from the Compagnie Nationale du Rhône's documentation or archival collections are hereafter abbreviated CNR.
73. For descriptions of the river as a torrent, see Pierre de Latil, "Donzère-Mondragon, chantier n. 1 de France," Science et vie, Feb. 1952, 100-111;
74. and Tournier, Rhône, dieu conquis, 2.
75. For the "capricious," "impetuous," and "undisciplined" river, see Marc Cluzea, "Rhône, merveilleuse mine d'énergie," Le pèlerin, Feb. 16, 1958, 6-7;
76. and André Allix, "Le Rhône," Réalisations industrielles, June-July 1951, 65-67.
77. Albert Plécy, "Donzère-Mondragon, à la poursuite de 2 milliards de kilowatts," Paris Match, Nov. 1, 1952, 28.
78. For just two examples, see Cluzea, "Rhône, merveilleuse mine d'énergie," 6-7;
79. and Allix, "Rhône," 65-67.
80. For an early work on French anxiety about losing status as a great power, see Stanley Hoffman, ed. , In Search of France (Cambridge, 1963).
81. Michael Bess and Hecht discuss the relationship between high technology, politics, and identity in the postwar era: Michael Bess, "Ecology and Artifice: Shifting Perceptions of Nature and High Technology in Postwar France," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 830-62;
82. Bess, "Greening the Mainstream: Paradoxes of Antistatism and Anticonsumerism in the French Environmental Movement," Environmental History 5 (2000): 6-26;
83. For two classic works on the gendering of nature, see Carolyn Merchant, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (San Francisco, 1989);
84. and Londa Scheibinger, Nature's Body: Gender in the Making of Modern Science (Boston, 1993).
85. Jean-François Virenque, Nouveaux destins du Rhône: Navigation, électricité, irrigation (Rapports: France-Etats Unis, n. d. ), 4. CNR, Documentation, 09668.
86. Office de Publicité Générale, Donzère- Mondragon (Paris, 1953).
87. Daniel Faucher, L'homme et le Rhône (Paris, 1968).
88. For other examples of "taming," see Jean Chignol, "Samedi, Donzère-Mondragon a été inauguré officiellement par le président de la République . . . et 2. 000 CRS," Les Allobroges, Oct. 27, 1952, 1;
89. Paul-Louis Bret, "La formule du Rhône," Rapports: France-Etats Unis, Nov. 1952;
90. and Carrière, "Découverte de la France. "
91. For just a few of the images of men, machines, and conquest, see René Grosso, Pierre Nicolas, and Lucien Perret, "Donzère- Mondragon: Les chantiers (1947-1951)," Bibliothèque de travail 166 (1951);
92. de Latil, "Donzère-Mondragon," 100-111;
93. and Office de Publicité Générale, Donzère-Mondragon.
94. For several works that explore the relationship between gender ideology and industrialization, see Maxime Berg, The Age of Manufactures, 1700-1820 (Oxford, 1985);
95. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983);
96. and Nina E. Lerman, Arwen Palmer Mohun, and Ruth Oldenziel, "The Shoulders We Stand On and the View from Here: Historiography and Directions for Research," Technology and Culture 38 (1997): 9-30.
97. For an excellent comparative study of the intersection of gender, technology, and industrial production during the early twentieth century, see Downs, Manufacturing Inequality.
98. "Entre Montélimar, Bollène et Orange, la France prend déjà son visage de demain," Paris-Match, n. d. CNR, Documentation, unarchived press clippings.
99. Plécy, "Donzère-Mondragon. "
100. Claudius Deriol, "Entre Donzère et Mondragon, le Rhône va sauter une marche de vingtdeux mètres," France magazine, June 25, 1950.
101. For another apocalyptic article, see J. P. Aymon, Le Rhône dompté, III: Le chef éclusier de Donzère-Mondragon (Sept. 22, 1952), CNR, AR0103, Box 175, Inauguration de Donzère-Mondragon, Presse et Radio.
102. J. Labadie, "L'aménagement du Rhône de Donzère à Mondragon," Science et vie 381 (1949): 380-85.
103. Bret, "Formule du Rhône," 7.
104. Gilbert Tournier, Le Rhône, fleuve dieu vous parle (Paris, 1957).
105. Bret, "Formule du Rhône"; "Entre Montélimar, Bollène et Orange. "
106. For other citations on "conquest," see "Dernier acte du chef-d'oeuvre de notre économie nationale, hier, Donzère-Mondragon a reçu l'approbation administrative," Le progrès (?), Nov. 14, 1953, 15 (Valence, Archives Départementales de la Drôme, press clippings on the CNR);
107. De Latil, "Donzère-Mondragon," 100-111.
108. Raoul Faure, Le Rhône (II, Au fil de son histoire) (Bibliothèque de Travail, Apr. 10, 1959), CNR, Documentation, 09440;
109. Groupement d'Entreprises des Travaux d'Aménagement du Rhône à Donzère, Donzère-Mondragon: Bulletin d'information technique et professionnel, numéro 3 (1947-1952), CNR Archives. The CNR has not yet cataloged these bulletins.
110. Bret, "Formule du Rhône," 3.
111. For other examples, see "The Rhône Valley," Water Power (1960): 214-23;
112. The final chapter of Tournier, Rhône, dieu conquis is titled "Au fil du destin"; see also Virenque, Nouveaux destins du Rhône.
113. Jacques Sabran, "Le plus puissant barrage d'Europe," Le Dauphiné libéré, Apr. 3, 1952;
114. For two other examples of the "new Rhône," see J. P. Aymon, Le Rhône sous le joug, I, Il y a quelque chose de changé (Sept. 19, 1952), CNR, AR0103, Box 175, Inauguration de Donzère- Mondragon, Presse et Radio;
115. Deriol, "Entre Donzère et Mondragon. "
116. David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change (Cambridge, 1990), 16.
117. "Entre Montélimar, Bollène et Orange. "
118. Bret, "Formule du Rhône"; Aymon, Rhône dompté, III.
119. Office de Publicité Générale, Donzère- Mondragon;
120. Jean Fangeat, "Devant les ambassadeurs de 45 nations, M. Vincent Auriol a mis en marche l'usine géant de Donzère-Mondragon," Le Dauphiné libéré, Oct. 27, 1952, 1.
121. "Donzère-Mondragon," Le Dauphiné libéré, Oct. 25, 1952.
122. Sabran, "Plus puissant barrage. "
123. Deriol, "Entre Donzère et Mondragon"; Plécy, "Donzère-Mondragon";
124. R. L. Lachat, "Alors que l'on s'apprête à inaugurer avec éclat le gigantesque ouvrage rappelons que ce sont 2 Grenoblois, MM. Giroud et Perrin qui, en 1811, et pour la somme de 40 000 fr. , lancèrent les premiers travaux de Donzère-Mondragon," Le Dauphiné libéré, Oct. 23, 1952;
125. Raymond Domergue, "Au cours d'une importante réunion tenue à Donzère, Les sinistrés du canal Donzère-Mondragon ont réaffirmé leur volonté d'obtenir la juste indemnisation des dommages causés," newspaper unknown, Apr. 12, 1952 (Valence, Archives Départementales de la Drôme, press clippings on the CNR);
126. Le Masson, "Aménagement du Rhône," 613-15.
127. Marcoule, a nuclear reactor located on the Rhône twenty miles downstream of Donzère-Mondragon, also became a symbol of national glory for politicians, engineers, and locals: Gabrielle Hecht, "Peasants, Engineers, and Atomic Cathedrals: Narrating Modernization in Postwar France," French Historical Studies 20 (1997): 381-418.
128. Miriam Levin, "The Eiffel Tower Revisited," French Review 62 (1989): 1052-64;
129. Debora Silverman, Art Nouveau in Fin-de-Siècle France: Politics, Psychology, and Style (Berkeley, CA, 1989).
130. Bess, "Ecology and Artiface. "
131. De Latil, "Donzère-Mondragon"; Le Masson, "Aménagement du Rhône," 613-15. The Panama Canal may have been cited less frequently because the French ultimately failed to build it.
132. Jean Durand, "Le 25 octobre 1952, le président Auriol inaugurait le complexe Donzère-Mondragon, triomphe de la technique française," newspaper unknown (CNR, Documentation, unarchived press clippings);
133. For "two world records," see Carrière, "Découverte de la France"; Office de Publicité Générale, Donzère-Mondragon;
134. Grosso, Nicolas, and Perret, "Donzère-Mondragon," 13.
135. The literature on Franco-American relations after the war is extensive. One important work is Richard F. Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization (Berkeley, CA, 1993).
136. Labadie, "Aménagement du Rhône," 380-85.
137. Deriol, "Entre Donzère et Mondragon"; Claude Thomas, "L'équipement hydro-électrique en France: Du plus grand chantier au plus haut barrage," France Illustration, Apr. 1, 1950, CNR, Documentation, 09431.
138. The exact figures for American financing of the CNR's projects are not entirely clear. The following document maintained that 90 percent of the CNR's immediate postwar projects were funded by the Marshall Plan: U. S. Senate, Hearings before Committee on Foreign Relations, 82nd Cong. , 2nd sess. , Mar.-Apr. 1952, 419-20.
139. Jean-Pierre Rioux, La France de la Quatrième République 1: L'ardeur et la nécessité (Paris, 1980), 242.
140. Durand, "25 octobre 1952";
141. Fangeat, "Devant les ambassadeurs. "
142. For other effusive statements about the "French" identity of Donzère-Mondragon, consult "Invité par la Compagnie nationale du Rhône, M. Vincent Auriol accompagné de 53 ambassadeurs et diplomates étrangers inaugurera samedi prochain le canal Donzère-Mondragon et l'usine André Blondel," Le Dauphiné libéré, Oct. 18, 1952.
143. Aymon, Rhône sous le Joug, I;
144. "Donzère-Mondragon," Le progrès, Oct. 27, 1952, 1;
145. Chignol, "Samedi, Donzère-Mondragon a été inauguré," 1.
146. Gilbert Tournier, En descendant le cours du Rhône (Lyon, 1960).
147. Bruno Latour has most fully and persuasively developed the notion of a laboratory as a site for social, scientific, and environmental reorganization: Bruno Latour, "Give Me a Laboratory and I Will Raise the World," in Science Observed: Perspectives on the Social Study of Science, ed. Karin Knorr-Cetina and Michael Mulkay (London, 1983), 141-70.
148. Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen.
149. For a parallel story of hydroelectric development and peasant response, see Robert Frost, "The Flood of Progress: Technocrats and Peasants at Tignes (Savoy), 1946-1952," French Historical Studies 14 (1985): 117-40.
150. Domergue, "Au cours d'une importante réunion. "
151. Daniel Faucher, "'Du Rhône sauvage au Rhône discipliné,'" Association universitaire d'études drômoises 3-4 (1975): 48-52.
152. Marcel Weckel, "L'aménagement du Rhône, exposé par M. l'Ingénieur général, lors du 796e déjeuner-conférence de la Société de Géographie Commerciale le 12 décembre 1973," Revue économique française 2 (1974): 43-58.
153. André Castelnau, "A Brens, près de Belley, on a remis le Rhône dans son lit . . . pour le faire travailler! (455 millions de kWh par an)," Le progrès, Mar. 21, 1982, in L'aménagement du Rhône, suivi de la liaison du Rhône au Rhin, Articles de presse, vol. 3 (1978-1983), Bibliothèque Municipale de Lyon, Regional Archives (hereafter Articles de presse, vol. 3);
154. Jacqueline Beaujeu-Garnier, "Rhône, couloir du futur," newspaper unknown, n. d. , in L'aménagement du Rhône, suivi de la liaison du Rhône au Rhin, Articles de presse, vol. 1 (1970-1975), Bibliothèque Municipale de Lyon, Regional Archives (hereafter Articles de presse, vol. 1);
155. "Econotes, Chautagne et Belley: Les barrages pour 900. 000 habitants," Objectif Savoie-Leman, June 18, 1977, in L'aménagement du Rhône, suivi de la liaison du Rhône au Rhin, Articles de presse, vol. 2 (1970-1975), Bibliothèque Municipale de Lyon, Regional Archives (hereafter Articles de presse, vol. 2).
156. Bess, "Greening the Mainstream," alludes to the paradoxical blending of environmentalism and political centralization. For secondary literature that outlines some of the institutional and legal networks of environmental management and how they have changed over time, see Giandou, Compagnie nationale du Rhône; and Pritchard, "Recreating the Rhône," chap. 1.
157. "L'aménagement du fleuve," Bulletin du PCM 10 (1976): 22-26.
158. Faucher, "'Du Rhône sauvage au Rhône discipliné,'" 48-52;
159. Beaujeu-Garnier, "Rhône, couloir du futur," 49.
160. Castelnau, "A Brens. "
161. "Aménagement du Rhône, un confluent tout neuf," Métropole, Oct. 18, 1978, Articles de presse, vol. 3;
162. Jean Osterman, "Le Rhône dompté," La vie française, Mar. 17, 1980, Articles de presse, vol. 3;
163. "Point final de l'équipement du Bas-Rhône: Le barrage de Vaugris inauguré par Raymond Barre," Lyon matin, Oct. 4, 1980, Articles de presse, vol. 3.
164. Gilbert Tournier, Michel Laferrère, and François Tornas, Lyonnais: Beaujolais, Forez, Vivarais (Paris, 1973).
165. A. Hiely, "Dans la vallée du Rhône, industrie et environnement veulent aller de pair," newspaper unknown, Articles de presse, vol. 1.
166. CNR, "Publi-information. La CNR: Un aménageur fluvial au service des collectivités," Vie publique, Oct. 1991, in L'aménagement du Rhône, suivi de la liaison du Rhône au Rhin, Articles de presse, vol. 5 (1988-1992), Bibliothèque Municipale de Lyon, Regional Archives (hereafter Articles de presse, vol. 5).
167. CNR, "Publi-information. "
168. Two exemplary books include Tournier, Laferrère, and Tornas, Lyonnais;
169. and Gilbert Tournier, La vallée impériale: Couloir de l'Europe (Lyon, 1977).
170. J. M. Delettrez, Le Rhône de Genève à la Méditerranée (Paris, 1974).
171. François Grosrichard, "L'inauguration du barrage de Vaugris, 'La liaison Rhin-Rhône se réalisera si elle constitue vraiment une grande ambition collective,'" Le monde, Oct. 5-6, 1980, Articles de presse, vol. 3.
172. Faucher, L'homme et le Rhône, 369.
173. Braudel, Identity of France, 1:7.
174. Delettrez, Rhône de Genève à la Mé diterranée.
175. Jeremy Popkin, A History of Modern France (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1994), 335-36.
176. Claude Gemaehling, "Vers l'achèvement de l'aménagement du Rhône," Techniques et sciences municipales 3 (1974): 93-103.
177. "Aménagement du fleuve," 22-26.
178. Grosrichard, "Inauguration du barrage de Vaugris. "
179. In my survey of newspapers, magazines, and other print media from the 1970s through 1990s, I have found no reference to Notre-Dame or other icons cited in the postwar era.
180. Vincent Simon, "Le Rhône, fleuve-dieu, fleuve-béton, " Métropole: Magazine d'informations de Lyon et Rhône-Alpes, June-July 1979, 17-21.
181. "M. Paul Ribeyre: 'Cette grande idée peut constituer pour la jeunesse le symbole des ambitions nouvelles de la France,'" Le progrès, Nov. 25, 1975, Articles de presse, vol. 1.
182. "Giscard: 'La France au rendez-vous de l'Europe," Le quotidien de Paris, Nov. 25, 1975, Articles de presse, vol. 1.
183. For other examples of this European context for the project, see Philippe Lamour, "Rhin-Rhône: Une liaison pour l'Occident," Le monde, July 11, 1975, Articles de presse, vol. 1;
184. Roland Guinier du Vignard, "Rhin-Rhône: Un trait d'union qui divise," Le quotidien de Paris, Nov. 25, 1975, Articles de presse, vol. 1.
185. "Seurre: La liaison Rhône-Rhin-Danube grande entreprise européenne," Le monde, Nov. 6, 1973, Articles de presse, vol. 1;
186. Tournier, Vallée impériale.
187. D. Largeron, "Les lônes remplacées par des zones," Le progrès, Oct. 3, 1980, Articles de presse, vol. 3;
188. Bruno Fournier, "Inauguration: L'usine hydraulique de Chautagne, premier maillon de l'aménagement du haut Rhône," Le Dauphiné libéré, Feb. 13, 1981, Articles de presse, vol. 3.
189. Simon, "Rhône, fleuve-dieu. "
190. Bess, "Greening the Mainstream"; Anna Bramwell, Ecology in the Twentieth Century: A History (New Haven, CT, 1989);
191. Philip G. Cerny, ed. , Social Movements and Protest in France (New York, 1982);
192. Guillaume Sainteny, L'introuvable écologisme français? (Paris, 2000);
193. Sainteny, Les Verts, 3rd ed. (Paris, 1997);
194. Sainteny, "L'écologisme en Allemagne et en France: Deux modes différents de construction d'un nouvel acteur politique," working paper from Barcelona, Institut de Ciències Politiques i Socials 78 (1993).
195. M. J. G. , "Nos lecteurs nous écrivent, le Haut-Rhône," Le progrès, Aug. 6, 1976, Articles de presse, vol. 2.
196. "Environnement: La CNR contestée," Le progrès, Jan. 24, 1982, Articles de presse, vol. 3.
197. Bernard Clavel, "Témoignage: J'ai vu mourir le Rhône, je ne veux pas voir mourir le Doubs," Le monde, June 22, 1978, Articles de presse, vol. 3;
198. "Les automobilistes pêcheurs sportifs: Un grand fleuve est mort," Le progrès soir, Dec. 24, 1981, Articles de presse, vol. 3.
199. Simon, "Rhône, fleuve-dieu"; "Ecologic: Construction du barrage de Loyettes, la CNR rassure les opposants," Le progrès (Alpes), Jan. 16, 1982, Articles de presse, vol. 3;
200. Guy Jourdan, "Aménagement du Haut-Rhône, la FRAPNA pas d'accord," Le progrès (Alpes), Jan. 22, 1982, Articles de presse, vol. 3.
201. "Ecologie: Construction du barrage de Loyettes"; Jourdan, "Aménagement du Haut-Rhône. " The "death of nature" plays on Merchant's book of that title.
202. A vast literature in American environmental history has deconstructed "wilderness. " For a variety of essays that explore this theme, see William Cronon, ed. , Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature (New York, 1995), especially his introductory essay, "The Trouble with Wilderness. "
203. For example, see J.-P. Callamand and A. Castelnau, "Projet de barrages sur le Rhône, Loyettes oui ou non?," Le progrès, Aug. 27, 1982, Articles de presse, vol. 3.
204. Robert Fritsch, "Un paysage à sauvegarder: La vallée du Rhône jurassien de Bellegarde àLagnieu," Bulletin de la société d'histoire naturelle de la Savoie 185 (1977): 7;
205. Françoise Holtz-Bonneau, "Des barrages à contre-sens," Ecologie, Mar. 15-Apr. 15, 1982, 19-20;
206. "Défense du fleuve Rhône et de la rivière d'Ain: Création d'un comité de coordination," Le progrès, Dec. 26, 1981, Articles de presse, vol. 3;
207. "Une pétition pour la sauvegarde du Haut-Rhône et de la rivière d'Ain," Le Dauphiné libéré, Feb. 24, 1982, Articles de presse, vol. 3;
208. A. G. , "Aménagements du Rhône: La CNR devra remonter le courant," Voix de l'Ain, Jan. 15, 1982, Articles de presse, vol. 3.
209. Gilles Morel, "L'aménagement du Rhône: De très nombreux et très graves problèmes humains," Articles de presse, vol. 2.
210. Fritsch, "Paysage à sauvegarder"; Jourdan, "Aménagement du Haut-Rhône. "
211. André Castelnau, "Equipement, le nouveau visage du Rhône canalisé," Le progrès (Alpes), Apr. 14, 1982, Articles de presse, vol. 3.
212. "Pour Condrieu, L'aménagement du Rhône pose des problèmes," Le journal, Sept. 21, 1978, Articles de presse, vol. 3;
213. "Le développement du Rhône Moyen: A la recherche d'une stratégie," Liaisons Rhône-Alpes, Mar. 1975, 43-51.
214. Jean-Paul Bravard, "Le Rhône, fleuve soumis," Alpes magazine, May-June 1990, 20-27.
215. Paul R. Josephson, Industrialized Nature: Brute Force Technology and the Transformation of the Natural World (Washington, DC, 2002).
216. Alain Gilbert, "Les chantiers de la CNR à Bregnier et à Belley, Bétonner, exploiter . . . et respecter le Rhône," Voix de l'Ain, Dec. 26, 1980.
217. For another article, which is largely against the CNR, see Morel, "Aménagement du Rhône. "
218. Holtz-Bonneau, "Des barrages à contre-sens";
219. Jourdan, "Aménagement du Haut-Rhône";
220. Mairie de Givors, Coordination des Associations de la Vallée du Rhône, "Centrales nucléaires: Pour ou contre?," Stop pollution/vallée du Rhône 1 (1975): 1;
221. "Comurhex: La main dans le fût," Hebdo-pays, July-Aug. 1979, 5.
222. Author's interview with CNR public relations official, 1999. The Barcelona proposal takes the other rural, regional development projects that tapped the Rhône's waters to new levels. For a history of one agency, the BRL, see Marie-Françoise Souchon, La Compagnie nationale d'aménagement de la région du Bas-Rhône-Languedoc (Grenoble, 1968). The BRL's Web site describes the proposed Barcelona project (www. brl. fr/SPIP/rubrique_sepalrc_entete. php3).
223. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, 2nd ed. (New York, 1991).
224. See n. 2.
225. Josef Konvitz, Cartography in France, 1660-1848: Science, Engineering, and Statecraft (Chicago, 1987);
226. Mukerji, Territorial ambitions;
227. Mukerji, "Cartography. "