The Shoulders We Stand on and the View from Here: Historiography and Directions for Research

Technology and Culture

Volumn 38, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 9-29

  Lerman, Nina E ^a   Mohun, Arwen Palmer ^a   Oldenziel, Ruth ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0347841600     PISSN: 0040165X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3106782     Document Type: Article

References (240)

1. Most importantly, we recognize the modern Western bias of this discussion, a bias that reflects both the North American focus of the articles that follow and the Western focus of the scholarship treating gender and technology explicitly. Although they do not explicitly address questions of gender, we are indebted to Michael Adas and Bryan Pfaffenberger for clear arguments about the meanings attached to technology and the ways those meanings construct power relationships. See Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, N.Y., 1989); Bryan Pfaffenberger, "Technological Dramas," Science, Technology and Human Values 17 (1992): 282-312.
2. Most importantly, we recognize the modern Western bias of this discussion, a bias that reflects both the North American focus of the articles that follow and the Western focus of the scholarship treating gender and technology explicitly. Although they do not explicitly address questions of gender, we are indebted to Michael Adas and Bryan Pfaffenberger for clear arguments about the meanings attached to technology and the ways those meanings construct power relationships. See Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, N.Y., 1989); Bryan Pfaffenberger, "Technological Dramas," Science, Technology and Human Values 17 (1992): 282-312.
3. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, "The 'Industrial Revolution' in the Home: Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Century," Technology and Culture 17 (1976): 1-24, and "From Virginia Dare to Virginia Slims: Women and Technology in American Life," Technology and Culture 20 (1979): 51-63. In fact, Cowan brought technology to women's historians as early as the Berkshire Conference of 1973; see her brief essay "A Case Study of Technological and Social Change: The Washing Machine and the Working Wife," in Clio's Consciousness Raised, ed Mary Hartman and Lois Banner (New York, 1976).
4. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, "The 'Industrial Revolution' in the Home: Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Century," Technology and Culture 17 (1976): 1-24, and "From Virginia Dare to Virginia Slims: Women and Technology in American Life," Technology and Culture 20 (1979): 51-63. In fact, Cowan brought technology to women's historians as early as the Berkshire Conference of 1973; see her brief essay "A Case Study of Technological and Social Change: The Washing Machine and the Working Wife," in Clio's Consciousness Raised, ed Mary Hartman and Lois Banner (New York, 1976).
5. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, "The 'Industrial Revolution' in the Home: Household Technology and Social Change in the 20th Century," Technology and Culture 17 (1976): 1-24, and "From Virginia Dare to Virginia Slims: Women and Technology in American Life," Technology and Culture 20 (1979): 51-63. In fact, Cowan brought technology to women's historians as early as the Berkshire Conference of 1973; see her brief essay "A Case Study of Technological and Social Change: The Washing Machine and the Working Wife," in Clio's Consciousness Raised, ed Mary Hartman and Lois Banner (New York, 1976).
6. Martha Moore Trescott, ed., Dynamos and Virgins Revisited: Women and Technological Change in History (Metuchen, N.J., 1979), quotes pp. 2-3. On women's changing roles, see the essays by Judith A. McGaw, Susan J. Kleinberg, and Susan Levine; on women as active participants, see the essays by Deborah Warner, Margaret Rossiter, and Trescott in the section titled "Women Inventors, Engineers, Scientists, and Entrepreneurs." Cowan's essay "The Industrial Revolution in the Home" was reprinted here as well. Trescott's title is a play on Lynn White, Dynamo and Virgin Reconsidered: Essays in the Dynamism of Western Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 1971); the original hardcover edition of White's book appeared as Machina ex Deo (Cambridge, Mass., 1968), and the title of that edition similarly inspired the title of Joan Rothschild, ed., Machina ex Dea: Feminist Perspectives on Technology (New York, 1983).
7. Martha Moore Trescott, ed., Dynamos and Virgins Revisited: Women and Technological Change in History (Metuchen, N.J., 1979), quotes pp. 2-3. On women's changing roles, see the essays by Judith A. McGaw, Susan J. Kleinberg, and Susan Levine; on women as active participants, see the essays by Deborah Warner, Margaret Rossiter, and Trescott in the section titled "Women Inventors, Engineers, Scientists, and Entrepreneurs." Cowan's essay "The Industrial Revolution in the Home" was reprinted here as well. Trescott's title is a play on Lynn White, Dynamo and Virgin Reconsidered: Essays in the Dynamism of Western Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 1971); the original hardcover edition of White's book appeared as Machina ex Deo (Cambridge, Mass., 1968), and the title of that edition similarly inspired the title of Joan Rothschild, ed., Machina ex Dea: Feminist Perspectives on Technology (New York, 1983).
8. Martha Moore Trescott, ed., Dynamos and Virgins Revisited: Women and Technological Change in History (Metuchen, N.J., 1979), quotes pp. 2-3. On women's changing roles, see the essays by Judith A. McGaw, Susan J. Kleinberg, and Susan Levine; on women as active participants, see the essays by Deborah Warner, Margaret Rossiter, and Trescott in the section titled "Women Inventors, Engineers, Scientists, and Entrepreneurs." Cowan's essay "The Industrial Revolution in the Home" was reprinted here as well. Trescott's title is a play on Lynn White, Dynamo and Virgin Reconsidered: Essays in the Dynamism of Western Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 1971); the original hardcover edition of White's book appeared as Machina ex Deo (Cambridge, Mass., 1968), and the title of that edition similarly inspired the title of Joan Rothschild, ed., Machina ex Dea: Feminist Perspectives on Technology (New York, 1983).
9. Martha Moore Trescott, ed., Dynamos and Virgins Revisited: Women and Technological Change in History (Metuchen, N.J., 1979), quotes pp. 2-3. On women's changing roles, see the essays by Judith A. McGaw, Susan J. Kleinberg, and Susan Levine; on women as active participants, see the essays by Deborah Warner, Margaret Rossiter, and Trescott in the section titled "Women Inventors, Engineers, Scientists, and Entrepreneurs." Cowan's essay "The Industrial Revolution in the Home" was reprinted here as well. Trescott's title is a play on Lynn White, Dynamo and Virgin Reconsidered: Essays in the Dynamism of Western Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 1971); the original hardcover edition of White's book appeared as Machina ex Deo (Cambridge, Mass., 1968), and the title of that edition similarly inspired the title of Joan Rothschild, ed., Machina ex Dea: Feminist Perspectives on Technology (New York, 1983).
10. Martha Moore Trescott, ed., Dynamos and Virgins Revisited: Women and Technological Change in History (Metuchen, N.J., 1979), quotes pp. 2-3. On women's changing roles, see the essays by Judith A. McGaw, Susan J. Kleinberg, and Susan Levine; on women as active participants, see the essays by Deborah Warner, Margaret Rossiter, and Trescott in the section titled "Women Inventors, Engineers, Scientists, and Entrepreneurs." Cowan's essay "The Industrial Revolution in the Home" was reprinted here as well. Trescott's title is a play on Lynn White, Dynamo and Virgin Reconsidered: Essays in the Dynamism of Western Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 1971); the original hardcover edition of White's book appeared as Machina ex Deo (Cambridge, Mass., 1968), and the title of that edition similarly inspired the title of Joan Rothschild, ed., Machina ex Dea: Feminist Perspectives on Technology (New York, 1983).
11. Martha Moore Trescott, ed., Dynamos and Virgins Revisited: Women and Technological Change in History (Metuchen, N.J., 1979), quotes pp. 2-3. On women's changing roles, see the essays by Judith A. McGaw, Susan J. Kleinberg, and Susan Levine; on women as active participants, see the essays by Deborah Warner, Margaret Rossiter, and Trescott in the section titled "Women Inventors, Engineers, Scientists, and Entrepreneurs." Cowan's essay "The Industrial Revolution in the Home" was reprinted here as well. Trescott's title is a play on Lynn White, Dynamo and Virgin Reconsidered: Essays in the Dynamism of Western Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 1971); the original hardcover edition of White's book appeared as Machina ex Deo (Cambridge, Mass., 1968), and the title of that edition similarly inspired the title of Joan Rothschild, ed., Machina ex Dea: Feminist Perspectives on Technology (New York, 1983).
12. Judith A. McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology," Signs 7 (1982): 798-828.
13. Beginning with Harry Braverman's seminal Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1974), the function of mechanization in relations between employers and workers has been widely discussed. For critiques of Braverman see Paul Thompson, The Nature of Work: An Introduction to Debates on the Labour Process (London, 1983); Heidi Hartmann, "Capitalism, Patriarchy, and Job Segregation by Sex," Signs 1 (1976): 137-69, and "The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism: Towards a More Progressive Union," Capital and Class 8 (1979): 1-33; Anne Phillips and Barbara Taylor, "Sex and Skill: Notes Towards a Feminist Economics," Feminist Review 6 (1980): 79-88.
14. Beginning with Harry Braverman's seminal Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1974), the function of mechanization in relations between employers and workers has been widely discussed. For critiques of Braverman see Paul Thompson, The Nature of Work: An Introduction to Debates on the Labour Process (London, 1983); Heidi Hartmann, "Capitalism, Patriarchy, and Job Segregation by Sex," Signs 1 (1976): 137-69, and "The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism: Towards a More Progressive Union," Capital and Class 8 (1979): 1-33; Anne Phillips and Barbara Taylor, "Sex and Skill: Notes Towards a Feminist Economics," Feminist Review 6 (1980): 79-88.
15. Beginning with Harry Braverman's seminal Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1974), the function of mechanization in relations between employers and workers has been widely discussed. For critiques of Braverman see Paul Thompson, The Nature of Work: An Introduction to Debates on the Labour Process (London, 1983); Heidi Hartmann, "Capitalism, Patriarchy, and Job Segregation by Sex," Signs 1 (1976): 137-69, and "The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism: Towards a More Progressive Union," Capital and Class 8 (1979): 1-33; Anne Phillips and Barbara Taylor, "Sex and Skill: Notes Towards a Feminist Economics," Feminist Review 6 (1980): 79-88.
16. Beginning with Harry Braverman's seminal Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1974), the function of mechanization in relations between employers and workers has been widely discussed. For critiques of Braverman see Paul Thompson, The Nature of Work: An Introduction to Debates on the Labour Process (London, 1983); Heidi Hartmann, "Capitalism, Patriarchy, and Job Segregation by Sex," Signs 1 (1976): 137-69, and "The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism: Towards a More Progressive Union," Capital and Class 8 (1979): 1-33; Anne Phillips and Barbara Taylor, "Sex and Skill: Notes Towards a Feminist Economics," Feminist Review 6 (1980): 79-88.
17. Beginning with Harry Braverman's seminal Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1974), the function of mechanization in relations between employers and workers has been widely discussed. For critiques of Braverman see Paul Thompson, The Nature of Work: An Introduction to Debates on the Labour Process (London, 1983); Heidi Hartmann, "Capitalism, Patriarchy, and Job Segregation by Sex," Signs 1 (1976): 137-69, and "The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism: Towards a More Progressive Union," Capital and Class 8 (1979): 1-33; Anne Phillips and Barbara Taylor, "Sex and Skill: Notes Towards a Feminist Economics," Feminist Review 6 (1980): 79-88.
18. David F. Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (New York, 1984) and "Social Choice in Machine Design: The Case of Automatically-Controlled Machine Tools," in Case Studies on the Labour Process, ed. Andrew Zimbalist (New York, 1979); Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Hugh G. J. Aitken, Scientific Management in Action: Taylorism at Watertown Arsenal, 1908-1915 (Cambridge, Mass., 1960; reprint Princeton, N.J., 1985).
19. David F. Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (New York, 1984) and "Social Choice in Machine Design: The Case of Automatically-Controlled Machine Tools," in Case Studies on the Labour Process, ed. Andrew Zimbalist (New York, 1979); Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Hugh G. J. Aitken, Scientific Management in Action: Taylorism at Watertown Arsenal, 1908-1915 (Cambridge, Mass., 1960; reprint Princeton, N.J., 1985).
20. David F. Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (New York, 1984) and "Social Choice in Machine Design: The Case of Automatically-Controlled Machine Tools," in Case Studies on the Labour Process, ed. Andrew Zimbalist (New York, 1979); Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Hugh G. J. Aitken, Scientific Management in Action: Taylorism at Watertown Arsenal, 1908-1915 (Cambridge, Mass., 1960; reprint Princeton, N.J., 1985).
21. David F. Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (New York, 1984) and "Social Choice in Machine Design: The Case of Automatically-Controlled Machine Tools," in Case Studies on the Labour Process, ed. Andrew Zimbalist (New York, 1979); Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Hugh G. J. Aitken, Scientific Management in Action: Taylorism at Watertown Arsenal, 1908-1915 (Cambridge, Mass., 1960; reprint Princeton, N.J., 1985).
22. Rothschild, Machina ex Dea, quote p. xvii. See also Joan Rothschild, ed., Women, Technology and Innovation (New York, 1981), which appeared as a special issue of Women's Studies International Quarterly 4 (1981). These years produced several other feminist tracts: see, for example, Jan Zimmerman, ed. Technological Woman: Interfacing with Tomorrow (New York, 1983) and Once Upon the Future: A Woman's Guide to Tomorrow's Technology (London, 1986); Wendy Faulkner and Erik Arnold, eds., Smothered by Invention: Technology in Women's Lives (London, 1985).
23. Rothschild, Machina ex Dea, quote p. xvii. See also Joan Rothschild, ed., Women, Technology and Innovation (New York, 1981), which appeared as a special issue of Women's Studies International Quarterly 4 (1981). These years produced several other feminist tracts: see, for example, Jan Zimmerman, ed. Technological Woman: Interfacing with Tomorrow (New York, 1983) and Once Upon the Future: A Woman's Guide to Tomorrow's Technology (London, 1986); Wendy Faulkner and Erik Arnold, eds., Smothered by Invention: Technology in Women's Lives (London, 1985).
24. Rothschild, Machina ex Dea, quote p. xvii. See also Joan Rothschild, ed., Women, Technology and Innovation (New York, 1981), which appeared as a special issue of Women's Studies International Quarterly 4 (1981). These years produced several other feminist tracts: see, for example, Jan Zimmerman, ed. Technological Woman: Interfacing with Tomorrow (New York, 1983) and Once Upon the Future: A Woman's Guide to Tomorrow's Technology (London, 1986); Wendy Faulkner and Erik Arnold, eds., Smothered by Invention: Technology in Women's Lives (London, 1985).
25. Rothschild, Machina ex Dea, quote p. xvii. See also Joan Rothschild, ed., Women, Technology and Innovation (New York, 1981), which appeared as a special issue of Women's Studies International Quarterly 4 (1981). These years produced several other feminist tracts: see, for example, Jan Zimmerman, ed. Technological Woman: Interfacing with Tomorrow (New York, 1983) and Once Upon the Future: A Woman's Guide to Tomorrow's Technology (London, 1986); Wendy Faulkner and Erik Arnold, eds., Smothered by Invention: Technology in Women's Lives (London, 1985).
26. Rothschild, Machina ex Dea, quote p. xvii. See also Joan Rothschild, ed., Women, Technology and Innovation (New York, 1981), which appeared as a special issue of Women's Studies International Quarterly 4 (1981). These years produced several other feminist tracts: see, for example, Jan Zimmerman, ed. Technological Woman: Interfacing with Tomorrow (New York, 1983) and Once Upon the Future: A Woman's Guide to Tomorrow's Technology (London, 1986); Wendy Faulkner and Erik Arnold, eds., Smothered by Invention: Technology in Women's Lives (London, 1985).
27. Rothschild, Machina ex Dea, quote p. xvii. See also Joan Rothschild, ed., Women, Technology and Innovation (New York, 1981), which appeared as a special issue of Women's Studies International Quarterly 4 (1981). These years produced several other feminist tracts: see, for example, Jan Zimmerman, ed. Technological Woman: Interfacing with Tomorrow (New York, 1983) and Once Upon the Future: A Woman's Guide to Tomorrow's Technology (London, 1986); Wendy Faulkner and Erik Arnold, eds., Smothered by Invention: Technology in Women's Lives (London, 1985).
28. John M. Staudenmaier, "What SHOT Hath Wrought and What SHOT Hath Not: Reflections on Twenty-Five Years of the History of Technology," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 707-30, and Technology's Storytellers: Reweaving the Human Fabric (Cambridge, Mass., 1985).
29. John M. Staudenmaier, "What SHOT Hath Wrought and What SHOT Hath Not: Reflections on Twenty-Five Years of the History of Technology," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 707-30, and Technology's Storytellers: Reweaving the Human Fabric (Cambridge, Mass., 1985).
30. Arguments based on the premise that women are fundamentally different and therefore employ different values in choices of technological and scientific development are most often referred to as ecofeminism and/or essentialist feminism. Oft-cited examples include Evelyn Fox Keller, A Feeling for the Organism: The Life and Work of Barbara McClintock (San Francisco, 1983) and Carolyn Merchant's influential The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New York, 1980), a summary of which appeared in Rothschild, Machina ex Dea, as "Mining the Earth's Womb, Dea Ex Machina." Machina ex Dea prominently featured this vein of scholarship; see, for example, Ynestra King, "Toward an Ecological Feminism and a Feminist Ecology," pp. 118-29. For more recent reiterations of this point of view, see Knut H. Sorensen, "Towards a Feminized Technology? Gendered Values in the Construction of Technology," Social Studies of Science 22 (1992): 5-32, and Rosalind Williams, "The Political and Feminist Dimensions of Technological Determinism," in Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism, ed. Merritt Roe Smith and Leo Marx (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). See also related ideas in Janine Morgall's Developing Technology Assessment: A Critical Feminist Approach (Copenhagen, 1991), which argues for integrating women's interests in the early design stages of developing technologies. For a different variety of ecofeminism, see also Stacy Alaimo, "Cyborg and Ecofeminist Interventions: Challenges for an Environmental Feminism," Feminist Studies 20 (1994): 133-52, and the work of Donna Haraway (n. 15 below).
31. Arguments based on the premise that women are fundamentally different and therefore employ different values in choices of technological and scientific development are most often referred to as ecofeminism and/or essentialist feminism. Oft- cited examples include Evelyn Fox Keller, A Feeling for the Organism: The Life and Work of Barbara McClintock (San Francisco, 1983) and Carolyn Merchant's influential The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New York, 1980), a summary of which appeared in Rothschild, Machina ex Dea, as "Mining the Earth's Womb, Dea Ex Machina." Machina ex Dea prominently featured this vein of scholarship; see, for example, Ynestra King, "Toward an Ecological Feminism and a Feminist Ecology," pp. 118-29. For more recent reiterations of this point of view, see Knut H. Sorensen, "Towards a Feminized Technology? Gendered Values in the Construction of Technology," Social Studies of Science 22 (1992): 5-32, and Rosalind Williams, "The Political and Feminist Dimensions of Technological Determinism," in Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism, ed. Merritt Roe Smith and Leo Marx (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). See also related ideas in Janine Morgall's Developing Technology Assessment: A Critical Feminist Approach (Copenhagen, 1991), which argues for integrating women's interests in the early design stages of developing technologies. For a different variety of ecofeminism, see also Stacy Alaimo, "Cyborg and Ecofeminist Interventions: Challenges for an Environmental Feminism," Feminist Studies 20 (1994): 133-52, and the work of Donna Haraway (n. 15 below).
32. Arguments based on the premise that women are fundamentally different and therefore employ different values in choices of technological and scientific development are most often referred to as ecofeminism and/or essentialist feminism. Oft- cited examples include Evelyn Fox Keller, A Feeling for the Organism: The Life and Work of Barbara McClintock (San Francisco, 1983) and Carolyn Merchant's influential The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New York, 1980), a summary of which appeared in Rothschild, Machina ex Dea, as "Mining the Earth's Womb, Dea Ex Machina." Machina ex Dea prominently featured this vein of scholarship; see, for example, Ynestra King, "Toward an Ecological Feminism and a Feminist Ecology," pp. 118-29. For more recent reiterations of this point of view, see Knut H. Sorensen, "Towards a Feminized Technology? Gendered Values in the Construction of Technology," Social Studies of Science 22 (1992): 5-32, and Rosalind Williams, "The Political and Feminist Dimensions of Technological Determinism," in Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism, ed. Merritt Roe Smith and Leo Marx (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). See also related ideas in Janine Morgall's Developing Technology Assessment: A Critical Feminist Approach (Copenhagen, 1991), which argues for integrating women's interests in the early design stages of developing technologies. For a different variety of ecofeminism, see also Stacy Alaimo, "Cyborg and Ecofeminist Interventions: Challenges for an Environmental Feminism," Feminist Studies 20 (1994): 133-52, and the work of Donna Haraway (n. 15 below).
33. Arguments based on the premise that women are fundamentally different and therefore employ different values in choices of technological and scientific development are most often referred to as ecofeminism and/or essentialist feminism. Oft- cited examples include Evelyn Fox Keller, A Feeling for the Organism: The Life and Work of Barbara McClintock (San Francisco, 1983) and Carolyn Merchant's influential The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New York, 1980), a summary of which appeared in Rothschild, Machina ex Dea, as "Mining the Earth's Womb, Dea Ex Machina." Machina ex Dea prominently featured this vein of scholarship; see, for example, Ynestra King, "Toward an Ecological Feminism and a Feminist Ecology," pp. 118-29. For more recent reiterations of this point of view, see Knut H. Sorensen, "Towards a Feminized Technology? Gendered Values in the Construction of Technology," Social Studies of Science 22 (1992): 5-32, and Rosalind Williams, "The Political and Feminist Dimensions of Technological Determinism," in Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism, ed. Merritt Roe Smith and Leo Marx (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). See also related ideas in Janine Morgall's Developing Technology Assessment: A Critical Feminist Approach (Copenhagen, 1991), which argues for integrating women's interests in the early design stages of developing technologies. For a different variety of ecofeminism, see also Stacy Alaimo, "Cyborg and Ecofeminist Interventions: Challenges for an Environmental Feminism," Feminist Studies 20 (1994): 133-52, and the work of Donna Haraway (n. 15 below).
34. Arguments based on the premise that women are fundamentally different and therefore employ different values in choices of technological and scientific development are most often referred to as ecofeminism and/or essentialist feminism. Oft- cited examples include Evelyn Fox Keller, A Feeling for the Organism: The Life and Work of Barbara McClintock (San Francisco, 1983) and Carolyn Merchant's influential The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New York, 1980), a summary of which appeared in Rothschild, Machina ex Dea, as "Mining the Earth's Womb, Dea Ex Machina." Machina ex Dea prominently featured this vein of scholarship; see, for example, Ynestra King, "Toward an Ecological Feminism and a Feminist Ecology," pp. 118-29. For more recent reiterations of this point of view, see Knut H. Sorensen, "Towards a Feminized Technology? Gendered Values in the Construction of Technology," Social Studies of Science 22 (1992): 5-32, and Rosalind Williams, "The Political and Feminist Dimensions of Technological Determinism," in Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism, ed. Merritt Roe Smith and Leo Marx (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). See also related ideas in Janine Morgall's Developing Technology Assessment: A Critical Feminist Approach (Copenhagen, 1991), which argues for integrating women's interests in the early design stages of developing technologies. For a different variety of ecofeminism, see also Stacy Alaimo, "Cyborg and Ecofeminist Interventions: Challenges for an Environmental Feminism," Feminist Studies 20 (1994): 133-52, and the work of Donna Haraway (n. 15 below).
35. Arguments based on the premise that women are fundamentally different and therefore employ different values in choices of technological and scientific development are most often referred to as ecofeminism and/or essentialist feminism. Oft- cited examples include Evelyn Fox Keller, A Feeling for the Organism: The Life and Work of Barbara McClintock (San Francisco, 1983) and Carolyn Merchant's influential The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New York, 1980), a summary of which appeared in Rothschild, Machina ex Dea, as "Mining the Earth's Womb, Dea Ex Machina." Machina ex Dea prominently featured this vein of scholarship; see, for example, Ynestra King, "Toward an Ecological Feminism and a Feminist Ecology," pp. 118-29. For more recent reiterations of this point of view, see Knut H. Sorensen, "Towards a Feminized Technology? Gendered Values in the Construction of Technology," Social Studies of Science 22 (1992): 5-32, and Rosalind Williams, "The Political and Feminist Dimensions of Technological Determinism," in Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism, ed. Merritt Roe Smith and Leo Marx (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). See also related ideas in Janine Morgall's Developing Technology Assessment: A Critical Feminist Approach (Copenhagen, 1991), which argues for integrating women's interests in the early design stages of developing technologies. For a different variety of ecofeminism, see also Stacy Alaimo, "Cyborg and Ecofeminist Interventions: Challenges for an Environmental Feminism," Feminist Studies 20 (1994): 133-52, and the work of Donna Haraway (n. 15 below).
36. Arguments based on the premise that women are fundamentally different and therefore employ different values in choices of technological and scientific development are most often referred to as ecofeminism and/or essentialist feminism. Oft- cited examples include Evelyn Fox Keller, A Feeling for the Organism: The Life and Work of Barbara McClintock (San Francisco, 1983) and Carolyn Merchant's influential The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New York, 1980), a summary of which appeared in Rothschild, Machina ex Dea, as "Mining the Earth's Womb, Dea Ex Machina." Machina ex Dea prominently featured this vein of scholarship; see, for example, Ynestra King, "Toward an Ecological Feminism and a Feminist Ecology," pp. 118-29. For more recent reiterations of this point of view, see Knut H. Sorensen, "Towards a Feminized Technology? Gendered Values in the Construction of Technology," Social Studies of Science 22 (1992): 5-32, and Rosalind Williams, "The Political and Feminist Dimensions of Technological Determinism," in Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism, ed. Merritt Roe Smith and Leo Marx (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). See also related ideas in Janine Morgall's Developing Technology Assessment: A Critical Feminist Approach (Copenhagen, 1991), which argues for integrating women's interests in the early design stages of developing technologies. For a different variety of ecofeminism, see also Stacy Alaimo, "Cyborg and Ecofeminist Interventions: Challenges for an Environmental Feminism," Feminist Studies 20 (1994): 133-52, and the work of Donna Haraway (n. 15 below).
37. Arguments based on the premise that women are fundamentally different and therefore employ different values in choices of technological and scientific development are most often referred to as ecofeminism and/or essentialist feminism. Oft- cited examples include Evelyn Fox Keller, A Feeling for the Organism: The Life and Work of Barbara McClintock (San Francisco, 1983) and Carolyn Merchant's influential The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New York, 1980), a summary of which appeared in Rothschild, Machina ex Dea, as "Mining the Earth's Womb, Dea Ex Machina." Machina ex Dea prominently featured this vein of scholarship; see, for example, Ynestra King, "Toward an Ecological Feminism and a Feminist Ecology," pp. 118-29. For more recent reiterations of this point of view, see Knut H. Sorensen, "Towards a Feminized Technology? Gendered Values in the Construction of Technology," Social Studies of Science 22 (1992): 5-32, and Rosalind Williams, "The Political and Feminist Dimensions of Technological Determinism," in Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism, ed. Merritt Roe Smith and Leo Marx (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). See also related ideas in Janine Morgall's Developing Technology Assessment: A Critical Feminist Approach (Copenhagen, 1991), which argues for integrating women's interests in the early design stages of developing technologies. For a different variety of ecofeminism, see also Stacy Alaimo, "Cyborg and Ecofeminist Interventions: Challenges for an Environmental Feminism," Feminist Studies 20 (1994): 133-52, and the work of Donna Haraway (n. 15 below).
38. Rothschild, Machina ex Dea, p. xvii.
39. Autumn Stanley, "Women Hold Up Two-Thirds of the Sky: Notes for a Revised History of Technology," in Rothschild, Machina Ex Dea.
40. Donald A. Mackenzie and Judy Wajcman. eds., The Social Shaping of Technology: How the Refrigerator Got Its Hum (Philadelphia, 1985).
41. Any choice fails to do justice to the sheer quantity and quality of this scholarship. A survey of article-length work can now be found in a massive and exhaustive compendium, Nancy Cott, ed., History of Women in the United States: Historical Articles on Women's Lives and Activities, 20 vols. (Munich and New York, 1992). Often-cited work includes Barbara Welter, "The Cult of True Womanhood, 1820-1860" American Quarterly 18 (1966): 151-74; Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America," Signs 1 (1975): 1-29; Nancy F. Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood: "Women's Sphere" in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven, Conn., 1977). For a sampling of recent attention to the diversity of women's experience in the United States, see Vicki L. Ruiz and Ellen Carol DuBois, eds., Unequal Sisters: A Multi-Cultural Reader in U.S. Women's History, 2d ed., (New York, 1994). On essentialist feminism, see n. 9 above.
42. Any choice fails to do justice to the sheer quantity and quality of this scholarship. A survey of article-length work can now be found in a massive and exhaustive compendium, Nancy Cott, ed., History of Women in the United States: Historical Articles on Women's Lives and Activities, 20 vols. (Munich and New York, 1992). Often-cited work includes Barbara Welter, "The Cult of True Womanhood, 1820-1860" American Quarterly 18 (1966): 151-74; Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America," Signs 1 (1975): 1-29; Nancy F. Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood: "Women's Sphere" in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven, Conn., 1977). For a sampling of recent attention to the diversity of women's experience in the United States, see Vicki L. Ruiz and Ellen Carol DuBois, eds., Unequal Sisters: A Multi-Cultural Reader in U.S. Women's History, 2d ed., (New York, 1994). On essentialist feminism, see n. 9 above.
43. Any choice fails to do justice to the sheer quantity and quality of this scholarship. A survey of article-length work can now be found in a massive and exhaustive compendium, Nancy Cott, ed., History of Women in the United States: Historical Articles on Women's Lives and Activities, 20 vols. (Munich and New York, 1992). Often-cited work includes Barbara Welter, "The Cult of True Womanhood, 1820-1860" American Quarterly 18 (1966): 151-74; Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America," Signs 1 (1975): 1-29; Nancy F. Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood: "Women's Sphere" in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven, Conn., 1977). For a sampling of recent attention to the diversity of women's experience in the United States, see Vicki L. Ruiz and Ellen Carol DuBois, eds., Unequal Sisters: A Multi-Cultural Reader in U.S. Women's History, 2d ed., (New York, 1994). On essentialist feminism, see n. 9 above.
44. Any choice fails to do justice to the sheer quantity and quality of this scholarship. A survey of article-length work can now be found in a massive and exhaustive compendium, Nancy Cott, ed., History of Women in the United States: Historical Articles on Women's Lives and Activities, 20 vols. (Munich and New York, 1992). Often-cited work includes Barbara Welter, "The Cult of True Womanhood, 1820-1860" American Quarterly 18 (1966): 151-74; Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America," Signs 1 (1975): 1-29; Nancy F. Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood: "Women's Sphere" in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven, Conn., 1977). For a sampling of recent attention to the diversity of women's experience in the United States, see Vicki L. Ruiz and Ellen Carol DuBois, eds., Unequal Sisters: A Multi-Cultural Reader in U.S. Women's History, 2d ed., (New York, 1994). On essentialist feminism, see n. 9 above.
45. Any choice fails to do justice to the sheer quantity and quality of this scholarship. A survey of article-length work can now be found in a massive and exhaustive compendium, Nancy Cott, ed., History of Women in the United States: Historical Articles on Women's Lives and Activities, 20 vols. (Munich and New York, 1992). Often-cited work includes Barbara Welter, "The Cult of True Womanhood, 1820-1860" American Quarterly 18 (1966): 151-74; Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America," Signs 1 (1975): 1-29; Nancy F. Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood: "Women's Sphere" in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven, Conn., 1977). For a sampling of recent attention to the diversity of women's experience in the United States, see Vicki L. Ruiz and Ellen Carol DuBois, eds., Unequal Sisters: A Multi-Cultural Reader in U.S. Women's History, 2d ed., (New York, 1994). On essentialist feminism, see n. 9 above.
46. Joan W. Scott, "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis," Journal of American History 91 (1986): 1053-75. An expanded - and better known - version of this essay appeared in her Gender and the Politics of History (New York, 1988). Sandra Harding articulated a similar vocabulary in the field of feminist philosophy of science in The Science Question in Feminism (Ithaca, N.Y., 1986). Although influential in the late eighties, neither was the first; see Ann Oakley's use of "gender" in Sex, Gender and Society (London, 1972).
47. Joan W. Scott, "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis," Journal of American History 91 (1986): 1053-75. An expanded - and better known - version of this essay appeared in her Gender and the Politics of History (New York, 1988). Sandra Harding articulated a similar vocabulary in the field of feminist philosophy of science in The Science Question in Feminism (Ithaca, N.Y., 1986). Although influential in the late eighties, neither was the first; see Ann Oakley's use of "gender" in Sex, Gender and Society (London, 1972).
48. Joan W. Scott, "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis," Journal of American History 91 (1986): 1053-75. An expanded - and better known - version of this essay appeared in her Gender and the Politics of History (New York, 1988). Sandra Harding articulated a similar vocabulary in the field of feminist philosophy of science in The Science Question in Feminism (Ithaca, N.Y., 1986). Although influential in the late eighties, neither was the first; see Ann Oakley's use of "gender" in Sex, Gender and Society (London, 1972).
49. Joan W. Scott, "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis," Journal of American History 91 (1986): 1053-75. An expanded - and better known - version of this essay appeared in her Gender and the Politics of History (New York, 1988). Sandra Harding articulated a similar vocabulary in the field of feminist philosophy of science in The Science Question in Feminism (Ithaca, N.Y., 1986). Although influential in the late eighties, neither was the first; see Ann Oakley's use of "gender" in Sex, Gender and Society (London, 1972).
50. For a sampling of this literature, see Sandra Harding and Jean F. Barr, eds., Sex and Scientific Inquiry (Chicago, 1975); Harding and Merrill Hintikka, eds., Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science (Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Boston, and Hingham, Mass., 1983), which includes Nancy Hartsock's "The Feminist Standpoint: Developing Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism," among other essays; Hilary Rose, "Hand, Brain, and Heart: a Feminist Epistemology for the Natural Sciences," Signs 9 (1983); Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, 1985); Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: the Reinvention of Nature (London, 1988), which includes her now-classic essay, "A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s," originally published in Socialist Review 15 (1985): 65-107; Harding, The Science Question in Feminism; Nancy Tuana, ed., Feminism and Science (Bloomington, Ind., 1989); Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton, N.J., 1990) and her useful overview "Essential Tensions - Phase Two: Feminist, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Science," in The Social Dimensions of Science, ed. Ernan McMullin (Notre Dame, Ind., 1992); Lorraine Code, What Can She Know: Feminist Theory and the Construction of Knowledge (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Hilary Rose, Love, Power and Knowledge: Towards a Feminist Transformation of the Sciences (Bloomington, Ind., 1994). Scholars studying women, gender, and science gathered at the University of Minnesota, in May 1995, at a conference titled "The Women, Gender, and Science Question." Selected papers from that conference will appear in Osiris, ed. Sally Gregory Kohlstedt and Helen E. Longino (forthcoming). Both Judy McGaw and Joan Rothschild have drawn on this literature in their later work; see Judith A. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History," and Joan Rothschild, "From Sex to Gender in the History of Technology," in In Context: History and the History of Technology, ed. Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post (Bethlehem, Penn., 1989).
51. For a sampling of this literature, see Sandra Harding and Jean F. Barr, eds., Sex and Scientific Inquiry (Chicago, 1975); Harding and Merrill Hintikka, eds., Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science (Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Boston, and Hingham, Mass., 1983), which includes Nancy Hartsock's "The Feminist Standpoint: Developing Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism," among other essays; Hilary Rose, "Hand, Brain, and Heart: a Feminist Epistemology for the Natural Sciences," Signs 9 (1983); Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, 1985); Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: the Reinvention of Nature (London, 1988), which includes her now-classic essay, "A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s," originally published in Socialist Review 15 (1985): 65-107; Harding, The Science Question in Feminism; Nancy Tuana, ed., Feminism and Science (Bloomington, Ind., 1989); Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton, N.J., 1990) and her useful overview "Essential Tensions - Phase Two: Feminist, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Science," in The Social Dimensions of Science, ed. Ernan McMullin (Notre Dame, Ind., 1992); Lorraine Code, What Can She Know: Feminist Theory and the Construction of Knowledge (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Hilary Rose, Love, Power and Knowledge: Towards a Feminist Transformation of the Sciences (Bloomington, Ind., 1994). Scholars studying women, gender, and science gathered at the University of Minnesota, in May 1995, at a conference titled "The Women, Gender, and Science Question." Selected papers from that conference will appear in Osiris, ed. Sally Gregory Kohlstedt and Helen E. Longino (forthcoming). Both Judy McGaw and Joan Rothschild have drawn on this literature in their later work; see Judith A. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History," and Joan Rothschild, "From Sex to Gender in the History of Technology," in In Context: History and the History of Technology, ed. Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post (Bethlehem, Penn., 1989).
52. For a sampling of this literature, see Sandra Harding and Jean F. Barr, eds., Sex and Scientific Inquiry (Chicago, 1975); Harding and Merrill Hintikka, eds., Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science (Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Boston, and Hingham, Mass., 1983), which includes Nancy Hartsock's "The Feminist Standpoint: Developing Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism," among other essays; Hilary Rose, "Hand, Brain, and Heart: a Feminist Epistemology for the Natural Sciences," Signs 9 (1983); Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, 1985); Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: the Reinvention of Nature (London, 1988), which includes her now-classic essay, "A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s," originally published in Socialist Review 15 (1985): 65-107; Harding, The Science Question in Feminism; Nancy Tuana, ed., Feminism and Science (Bloomington, Ind., 1989); Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton, N.J., 1990) and her useful overview "Essential Tensions - Phase Two: Feminist, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Science," in The Social Dimensions of Science, ed. Ernan McMullin (Notre Dame, Ind., 1992); Lorraine Code, What Can She Know: Feminist Theory and the Construction of Knowledge (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Hilary Rose, Love, Power and Knowledge: Towards a Feminist Transformation of the Sciences (Bloomington, Ind., 1994). Scholars studying women, gender, and science gathered at the University of Minnesota, in May 1995, at a conference titled "The Women, Gender, and Science Question." Selected papers from that conference will appear in Osiris, ed. Sally Gregory Kohlstedt and Helen E. Longino (forthcoming). Both Judy McGaw and Joan Rothschild have drawn on this literature in their later work; see Judith A. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History," and Joan Rothschild, "From Sex to Gender in the History of Technology," in In Context: History and the History of Technology, ed. Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post (Bethlehem, Penn., 1989).
53. For a sampling of this literature, see Sandra Harding and Jean F. Barr, eds., Sex and Scientific Inquiry (Chicago, 1975); Harding and Merrill Hintikka, eds., Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science (Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Boston, and Hingham, Mass., 1983), which includes Nancy Hartsock's "The Feminist Standpoint: Developing Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism," among other essays; Hilary Rose, "Hand, Brain, and Heart: a Feminist Epistemology for the Natural Sciences," Signs 9 (1983); Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, 1985); Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: the Reinvention of Nature (London, 1988), which includes her now-classic essay, "A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s," originally published in Socialist Review 15 (1985): 65-107; Harding, The Science Question in Feminism; Nancy Tuana, ed., Feminism and Science (Bloomington, Ind., 1989); Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton, N.J., 1990) and her useful overview "Essential Tensions - Phase Two: Feminist, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Science," in The Social Dimensions of Science, ed. Ernan McMullin (Notre Dame, Ind., 1992); Lorraine Code, What Can She Know: Feminist Theory and the Construction of Knowledge (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Hilary Rose, Love, Power and Knowledge: Towards a Feminist Transformation of the Sciences (Bloomington, Ind., 1994). Scholars studying women, gender, and science gathered at the University of Minnesota, in May 1995, at a conference titled "The Women, Gender, and Science Question." Selected papers from that conference will appear in Osiris, ed. Sally Gregory Kohlstedt and Helen E. Longino (forthcoming). Both Judy McGaw and Joan Rothschild have drawn on this literature in their later work; see Judith A. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History," and Joan Rothschild, "From Sex to Gender in the History of Technology," in In Context: History and the History of Technology, ed. Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post (Bethlehem, Penn., 1989).
54. For a sampling of this literature, see Sandra Harding and Jean F. Barr, eds., Sex and Scientific Inquiry (Chicago, 1975); Harding and Merrill Hintikka, eds., Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science (Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Boston, and Hingham, Mass., 1983), which includes Nancy Hartsock's "The Feminist Standpoint: Developing Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism," among other essays; Hilary Rose, "Hand, Brain, and Heart: a Feminist Epistemology for the Natural Sciences," Signs 9 (1983); Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, 1985); Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: the Reinvention of Nature (London, 1988), which includes her now-classic essay, "A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s," originally published in Socialist Review 15 (1985): 65-107; Harding, The Science Question in Feminism; Nancy Tuana, ed., Feminism and Science (Bloomington, Ind., 1989); Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton, N.J., 1990) and her useful overview "Essential Tensions - Phase Two: Feminist, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Science," in The Social Dimensions of Science, ed. Ernan McMullin (Notre Dame, Ind., 1992); Lorraine Code, What Can She Know: Feminist Theory and the Construction of Knowledge (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Hilary Rose, Love, Power and Knowledge: Towards a Feminist Transformation of the Sciences (Bloomington, Ind., 1994). Scholars studying women, gender, and science gathered at the University of Minnesota, in May 1995, at a conference titled "The Women, Gender, and Science Question." Selected papers from that conference will appear in Osiris, ed. Sally Gregory Kohlstedt and Helen E. Longino (forthcoming). Both Judy McGaw and Joan Rothschild have drawn on this literature in their later work; see Judith A. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History," and Joan Rothschild, "From Sex to Gender in the History of Technology," in In Context: History and the History of Technology, ed. Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post (Bethlehem, Penn., 1989).
55. For a sampling of this literature, see Sandra Harding and Jean F. Barr, eds., Sex and Scientific Inquiry (Chicago, 1975); Harding and Merrill Hintikka, eds., Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science (Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Boston, and Hingham, Mass., 1983), which includes Nancy Hartsock's "The Feminist Standpoint: Developing Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism," among other essays; Hilary Rose, "Hand, Brain, and Heart: a Feminist Epistemology for the Natural Sciences," Signs 9 (1983); Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, 1985); Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: the Reinvention of Nature (London, 1988), which includes her now-classic essay, "A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s," originally published in Socialist Review 15 (1985): 65-107; Harding, The Science Question in Feminism; Nancy Tuana, ed., Feminism and Science (Bloomington, Ind., 1989); Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton, N.J., 1990) and her useful overview "Essential Tensions - Phase Two: Feminist, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Science," in The Social Dimensions of Science, ed. Ernan McMullin (Notre Dame, Ind., 1992); Lorraine Code, What Can She Know: Feminist Theory and the Construction of Knowledge (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Hilary Rose, Love, Power and Knowledge: Towards a Feminist Transformation of the Sciences (Bloomington, Ind., 1994). Scholars studying women, gender, and science gathered at the University of Minnesota, in May 1995, at a conference titled "The Women, Gender, and Science Question." Selected papers from that conference will appear in Osiris, ed. Sally Gregory Kohlstedt and Helen E. Longino (forthcoming). Both Judy McGaw and Joan Rothschild have drawn on this literature in their later work; see Judith A. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History," and Joan Rothschild, "From Sex to Gender in the History of Technology," in In Context: History and the History of Technology, ed. Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post (Bethlehem, Penn., 1989).
56. For a sampling of this literature, see Sandra Harding and Jean F. Barr, eds., Sex and Scientific Inquiry (Chicago, 1975); Harding and Merrill Hintikka, eds., Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science (Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Boston, and Hingham, Mass., 1983), which includes Nancy Hartsock's "The Feminist Standpoint: Developing Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism," among other essays; Hilary Rose, "Hand, Brain, and Heart: a Feminist Epistemology for the Natural Sciences," Signs 9 (1983); Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, 1985); Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: the Reinvention of Nature (London, 1988), which includes her now-classic essay, "A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s," originally published in Socialist Review 15 (1985): 65-107; Harding, The Science Question in Feminism; Nancy Tuana, ed., Feminism and Science (Bloomington, Ind., 1989); Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton, N.J., 1990) and her useful overview "Essential Tensions - Phase Two: Feminist, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Science," in The Social Dimensions of Science, ed. Ernan McMullin (Notre Dame, Ind., 1992); Lorraine Code, What Can She Know: Feminist Theory and the Construction of Knowledge (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Hilary Rose, Love, Power and Knowledge: Towards a Feminist Transformation of the Sciences (Bloomington, Ind., 1994). Scholars studying women, gender, and science gathered at the University of Minnesota, in May 1995, at a conference titled "The Women, Gender, and Science Question." Selected papers from that conference will appear in Osiris, ed. Sally Gregory Kohlstedt and Helen E. Longino (forthcoming). Both Judy McGaw and Joan Rothschild have drawn on this literature in their later work; see Judith A. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History," and Joan Rothschild, "From Sex to Gender in the History of Technology," in In Context: History and the History of Technology, ed. Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post (Bethlehem, Penn., 1989).
57. For a sampling of this literature, see Sandra Harding and Jean F. Barr, eds., Sex and Scientific Inquiry (Chicago, 1975); Harding and Merrill Hintikka, eds., Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science (Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Boston, and Hingham, Mass., 1983), which includes Nancy Hartsock's "The Feminist Standpoint: Developing Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism," among other essays; Hilary Rose, "Hand, Brain, and Heart: a Feminist Epistemology for the Natural Sciences," Signs 9 (1983); Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, 1985); Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: the Reinvention of Nature (London, 1988), which includes her now-classic essay, "A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s," originally published in Socialist Review 15 (1985): 65-107; Harding, The Science Question in Feminism; Nancy Tuana, ed., Feminism and Science (Bloomington, Ind., 1989); Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton, N.J., 1990) and her useful overview "Essential Tensions - Phase Two: Feminist, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Science," in The Social Dimensions of Science, ed. Ernan McMullin (Notre Dame, Ind., 1992); Lorraine Code, What Can She Know: Feminist Theory and the Construction of Knowledge (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Hilary Rose, Love, Power and Knowledge: Towards a Feminist Transformation of the Sciences (Bloomington, Ind., 1994). Scholars studying women, gender, and science gathered at the University of Minnesota, in May 1995, at a conference titled "The Women, Gender, and Science Question." Selected papers from that conference will appear in Osiris, ed. Sally Gregory Kohlstedt and Helen E. Longino (forthcoming). Both Judy McGaw and Joan Rothschild have drawn on this literature in their later work; see Judith A. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History," and Joan Rothschild, "From Sex to Gender in the History of Technology," in In Context: History and the History of Technology, ed. Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post (Bethlehem, Penn., 1989).
58. For a sampling of this literature, see Sandra Harding and Jean F. Barr, eds., Sex and Scientific Inquiry (Chicago, 1975); Harding and Merrill Hintikka, eds., Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science (Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Boston, and Hingham, Mass., 1983), which includes Nancy Hartsock's "The Feminist Standpoint: Developing Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism," among other essays; Hilary Rose, "Hand, Brain, and Heart: a Feminist Epistemology for the Natural Sciences," Signs 9 (1983); Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, 1985); Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: the Reinvention of Nature (London, 1988), which includes her now-classic essay, "A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s," originally published in Socialist Review 15 (1985): 65-107; Harding, The Science Question in Feminism; Nancy Tuana, ed., Feminism and Science (Bloomington, Ind., 1989); Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton, N.J., 1990) and her useful overview "Essential Tensions
59. For a sampling of this literature, see Sandra Harding and Jean F. Barr, eds., Sex and Scientific Inquiry (Chicago, 1975); Harding and Merrill Hintikka, eds., Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science (Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Boston, and Hingham, Mass., 1983), which includes Nancy Hartsock's "The Feminist Standpoint: Developing Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism," among other essays; Hilary Rose, "Hand, Brain, and Heart: a Feminist Epistemology for the Natural Sciences," Signs 9 (1983); Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, 1985); Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: the Reinvention of Nature (London, 1988), which includes her now-classic essay, "A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s," originally published in Socialist Review 15 (1985): 65-107; Harding, The Science Question in Feminism; Nancy Tuana, ed., Feminism and Science (Bloomington, Ind., 1989); Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton, N.J., 1990) and her useful overview "Essential Tensions - Phase Two: Feminist, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Science," in The Social Dimensions of Science, ed. Ernan McMullin (Notre Dame, Ind., 1992); Lorraine Code, What Can She Know: Feminist Theory and the Construction of Knowledge (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Hilary Rose, Love, Power and Knowledge: Towards a Feminist Transformation of the Sciences (Bloomington, Ind., 1994). Scholars studying women, gender, and science gathered at the University of Minnesota, in May 1995, at a conference titled "The Women, Gender, and Science Question." Selected papers from that conference will appear in Osiris, ed. Sally Gregory Kohlstedt and Helen E. Longino (forthcoming). Both Judy McGaw and Joan Rothschild have drawn on this literature in their later work; see Judith A. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History," and Joan Rothschild, "From Sex to Gender in the History of Technology," in In Context: History and the History of Technology, ed. Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post (Bethlehem, Penn., 1989).
60. For a sampling of this literature, see Sandra Harding and Jean F. Barr, eds., Sex and Scientific Inquiry (Chicago, 1975); Harding and Merrill Hintikka, eds., Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science (Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Boston, and Hingham, Mass., 1983), which includes Nancy Hartsock's "The Feminist Standpoint: Developing Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism," among other essays; Hilary Rose, "Hand, Brain, and Heart: a Feminist Epistemology for the Natural Sciences," Signs 9 (1983); Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, 1985); Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: the Reinvention of Nature (London, 1988), which includes her now-classic essay, "A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s," originally published in Socialist Review 15 (1985): 65-107; Harding, The Science Question in Feminism; Nancy Tuana, ed., Feminism and Science (Bloomington, Ind., 1989); Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton, N.J., 1990) and her useful overview "Essential Tensions - Phase Two: Feminist, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Science," in The Social Dimensions of Science, ed. Ernan McMullin (Notre Dame, Ind., 1992); Lorraine Code, What Can She Know: Feminist Theory and the Construction of Knowledge (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Hilary Rose, Love, Power and Knowledge: Towards a Feminist Transformation of the Sciences (Bloomington, Ind., 1994). Scholars studying women, gender, and science gathered at the University of Minnesota, in May 1995, at a conference titled "The Women, Gender, and Science Question." Selected papers from that conference will appear in Osiris, ed. Sally Gregory Kohlstedt and Helen E. Longino (forthcoming). Both Judy McGaw and Joan Rothschild have drawn on this literature in their later work; see Judith A. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History," and Joan Rothschild, "From Sex to Gender in the History of Technology," in In Context: History and the History of Technology, ed. Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post (Bethlehem, Penn., 1989).
61. For a sampling of this literature, see Sandra Harding and Jean F. Barr, eds., Sex and Scientific Inquiry (Chicago, 1975); Harding and Merrill Hintikka, eds., Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science (Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Boston, and Hingham, Mass., 1983), which includes Nancy Hartsock's "The Feminist Standpoint: Developing Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism," among other essays; Hilary Rose, "Hand, Brain, and Heart: a Feminist Epistemology for the Natural Sciences," Signs 9 (1983); Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, 1985); Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: the Reinvention of Nature (London, 1988), which includes her now-classic essay, "A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s," originally published in Socialist Review 15 (1985): 65-107; Harding, The Science Question in Feminism; Nancy Tuana, ed., Feminism and Science (Bloomington, Ind., 1989); Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton, N.J., 1990) and her useful overview "Essential Tensions - Phase Two: Feminist, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Science," in The Social Dimensions of Science, ed. Ernan McMullin (Notre Dame, Ind., 1992); Lorraine Code, What Can She Know: Feminist Theory and the Construction of Knowledge (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Hilary Rose, Love, Power and Knowledge: Towards a Feminist Transformation of the Sciences (Bloomington, Ind., 1994). Scholars studying women, gender, and science gathered at the University of Minnesota, in May 1995, at a conference titled "The Women, Gender, and Science Question." Selected papers from that conference will appear in Osiris, ed. Sally Gregory Kohlstedt and Helen E. Longino (forthcoming). Both Judy McGaw and Joan Rothschild have drawn on this literature in their later work; see Judith A. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History," and Joan Rothschild, "From Sex to Gender in the History of Technology," in In Context: History and the History of Technology, ed. Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post (Bethlehem, Penn., 1989).
62. For a sampling of this literature, see Sandra Harding and Jean F. Barr, eds., Sex and Scientific Inquiry (Chicago, 1975); Harding and Merrill Hintikka, eds., Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science (Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Boston, and Hingham, Mass., 1983), which includes Nancy Hartsock's "The Feminist Standpoint: Developing Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism," among other essays; Hilary Rose, "Hand, Brain, and Heart: a Feminist Epistemology for the Natural Sciences," Signs 9 (1983); Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, 1985); Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: the Reinvention of Nature (London, 1988), which includes her now-classic essay, "A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s," originally published in Socialist Review 15 (1985): 65-107; Harding, The Science Question in Feminism; Nancy Tuana, ed., Feminism and Science (Bloomington, Ind., 1989); Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton, N.J., 1990) and her useful overview "Essential Tensions - Phase Two: Feminist, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Science," in The Social Dimensions of Science, ed. Ernan McMullin (Notre Dame, Ind., 1992); Lorraine Code, What Can She Know: Feminist Theory and the Construction of Knowledge (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Hilary Rose, Love, Power and Knowledge: Towards a Feminist Transformation of the Sciences (Bloomington, Ind., 1994). Scholars studying women, gender, and science gathered at the University of Minnesota, in May 1995, at a conference titled "The Women, Gender, and Science Question." Selected papers from that conference will appear in Osiris, ed. Sally Gregory Kohlstedt and Helen E. Longino (forthcoming). Both Judy McGaw and Joan Rothschild have drawn on this literature in their later work; see Judith A. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History," and Joan Rothschild, "From Sex to Gender in the History of Technology," in In Context: History and the History of Technology, ed. Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post (Bethlehem, Penn., 1989).
63. For a sampling of this literature, see Sandra Harding and Jean F. Barr, eds., Sex and Scientific Inquiry (Chicago, 1975); Harding and Merrill Hintikka, eds., Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science (Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Boston, and Hingham, Mass., 1983), which includes Nancy Hartsock's "The Feminist Standpoint: Developing Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism," among other essays; Hilary Rose, "Hand, Brain, and Heart: a Feminist Epistemology for the Natural Sciences," Signs 9 (1983); Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, 1985); Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: the Reinvention of Nature (London, 1988), which includes her now-classic essay, "A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s," originally published in Socialist Review 15 (1985): 65-107; Harding, The Science Question in Feminism; Nancy Tuana, ed., Feminism and Science (Bloomington, Ind., 1989); Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton, N.J., 1990) and her useful overview "Essential Tensions - Phase Two: Feminist, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Science," in The Social Dimensions of Science, ed. Ernan McMullin (Notre Dame, Ind., 1992); Lorraine Code, What Can She Know: Feminist Theory and the Construction of Knowledge (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Hilary Rose, Love, Power and Knowledge: Towards a Feminist Transformation of the Sciences (Bloomington, Ind., 1994). Scholars studying women, gender, and science gathered at the University of Minnesota, in May 1995, at a conference titled "The Women, Gender, and Science Question." Selected papers from that conference will appear in Osiris, ed. Sally Gregory Kohlstedt and Helen E. Longino (forthcoming). Both Judy McGaw and Joan Rothschild have drawn on this literature in their later work; see Judith A. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History," and Joan Rothschild, "From Sex to Gender in the History of Technology," in In Context: History and the History of Technology, ed. Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post (Bethlehem, Penn., 1989).
64. For a sampling of this literature, see Sandra Harding and Jean F. Barr, eds., Sex and Scientific Inquiry (Chicago, 1975); Harding and Merrill Hintikka, eds., Discovering Reality: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science (Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Boston, and Hingham, Mass., 1983), which includes Nancy Hartsock's "The Feminist Standpoint: Developing Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism," among other essays; Hilary Rose, "Hand, Brain, and Heart: a Feminist Epistemology for the Natural Sciences," Signs 9 (1983); Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, 1985); Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs and Women: the Reinvention of Nature (London, 1988), which includes her now-classic essay, "A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s," originally published in Socialist Review 15 (1985): 65-107; Harding, The Science Question in Feminism; Nancy Tuana, ed., Feminism and Science (Bloomington, Ind., 1989); Helen E. Longino, Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry (Princeton, N.J., 1990) and her useful overview "Essential Tensions - Phase Two: Feminist, Philosophical, and Social Studies of Science," in The Social Dimensions of Science, ed. Ernan McMullin (Notre Dame, Ind., 1992); Lorraine Code, What Can She Know: Feminist Theory and the Construction of Knowledge (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Hilary Rose, Love, Power and Knowledge: Towards a Feminist Transformation of the Sciences (Bloomington, Ind., 1994). Scholars studying women, gender, and science gathered at the University of Minnesota, in May 1995, at a conference titled "The Women, Gender, and Science Question." Selected papers from that conference will appear in Osiris, ed. Sally Gregory Kohlstedt and Helen E. Longino (forthcoming). Both Judy McGaw and Joan Rothschild have drawn on this literature in their later work; see Judith A. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres: A Feminist Perspective on Technology's History," and Joan Rothschild, "From Sex to Gender in the History of Technology," in In Context: History and the History of Technology, ed. Stephen H. Cutcliffe and Robert C. Post (Bethlehem, Penn., 1989).
65. For an overview of discussions of engineering knowledge, and further citations, see Walter Vincenti, What Engineers Know and How they Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History (Baltimore, 1990). For further discussion of gender and technological knowledge, see Nina Lerman's article in this issue.
66. A good introduction to recent scholarship on gender and technology is provided by Judy Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology (Cambridge, 1991). The bibliography is exceptionally good and includes literature from outside North America. Some additional bibliographical references may be found in Cynthia Gay Bindocci, Women and Technology: An Annotated Bibliography (New York and London, 1993).
67. A good introduction to recent scholarship on gender and technology is provided by Judy Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology (Cambridge, 1991). The bibliography is exceptionally good and includes literature from outside North America. Some additional bibliographical references may be found in Cynthia Gay Bindocci, Women and Technology: An Annotated Bibliography (New York and London, 1993).
68. See Deborah J. Warner, "Women Inventors at the Centennial," in Trescott, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited (n. 3 above), and essays by Martha Moore Trescott and Autumn Stanley in the same volume. Trescott continued her work in "Lillian Moller Gilbreth and the Founding of Modern Industrial Engineering," in Rothschild, Machina ex Dea (n. 3 above), pp. 23-37, and "Women Engineers in History: Profiles in Holism and Persistence," in Women in Scientific and Engineering Professions, ed. Violet B. Haas and Carolyn C. Perrucci (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1984), pp. 181-205. Stanley's book Mothers and Daughters of Invention: Notes for a Revised History of Technology (Metuchen, N.J., 1993) is now available (see the review essay by Judith McGaw in this issue, which discusses this among other works). See also Stanley's article "The Patent Office as Conjurer: The Vanishing Lady Trick in a Nineteenth-Century Historical Source," in Women, Work, and Technology: Transformations, ed. Barbara Drygulski Wright et al. (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1987). For women inventors see also Anne L. Macdonald's anecdotal but rich Feminine Ingenuity: Women and Invention in America (New York, 1992) (also reviewed by Judith McGaw in her essay in this issue); Deborah J. Merritt, "Hypatia in the Patent Office: Women Inventors and the Law, 1865- 1900," American Journal of Legal History 35 (1991): 235-306; and the review essay by Judith McGaw in this issue.
69. See Deborah J. Warner, "Women Inventors at the Centennial," in Trescott, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited (n. 3 above), and essays by Martha Moore Trescott and Autumn Stanley in the same volume. Trescott continued her work in "Lillian Moller Gilbreth and the Founding of Modern Industrial Engineering," in Rothschild, Machina ex Dea (n. 3 above), pp. 23-37, and "Women Engineers in History: Profiles in Holism and Persistence," in Women in Scientific and Engineering Professions, ed. Violet B. Haas and Carolyn C. Perrucci (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1984), pp. 181-205. Stanley's book Mothers and Daughters of Invention: Notes for a Revised History of Technology (Metuchen, N.J., 1993) is now available (see the review essay by Judith McGaw in this issue, which discusses this among other works). See also Stanley's article "The Patent Office as Conjurer: The Vanishing Lady Trick in a Nineteenth-Century Historical Source," in Women, Work, and Technology: Transformations, ed. Barbara Drygulski Wright et al. (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1987). For women inventors see also Anne L. Macdonald's anecdotal but rich Feminine Ingenuity: Women and Invention in America (New York, 1992) (also reviewed by Judith McGaw in her essay in this issue); Deborah J. Merritt, "Hypatia in the Patent Office: Women Inventors and the Law, 1865- 1900," American Journal of Legal History 35 (1991): 235-306; and the review essay by Judith McGaw in this issue.
70. See Deborah J. Warner, "Women Inventors at the Centennial," in Trescott, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited (n. 3 above), and essays by Martha Moore Trescott and Autumn Stanley in the same volume. Trescott continued her work in "Lillian Moller Gilbreth and the Founding of Modern Industrial Engineering," in Rothschild, Machina ex Dea (n. 3 above), pp. 23-37, and "Women Engineers in History: Profiles in Holism and Persistence," in Women in Scientific and Engineering Professions, ed. Violet B. Haas and Carolyn C. Perrucci (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1984), pp. 181-205. Stanley's book Mothers and Daughters of Invention: Notes for a Revised History of Technology (Metuchen, N.J., 1993) is now available (see the review essay by Judith McGaw in this issue, which discusses this among other works). See also Stanley's article "The Patent Office as Conjurer: The Vanishing Lady Trick in a Nineteenth-Century Historical Source," in Women, Work, and Technology: Transformations, ed. Barbara Drygulski Wright et al. (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1987). For women inventors see also Anne L. Macdonald's anecdotal but rich Feminine Ingenuity: Women and Invention in America (New York, 1992) (also reviewed by Judith McGaw in her essay in this issue); Deborah J. Merritt, "Hypatia in the Patent Office: Women Inventors and the Law, 1865- 1900," American Journal of Legal History 35 (1991): 235-306; and the review essay by Judith McGaw in this issue.
71. See Deborah J. Warner, "Women Inventors at the Centennial," in Trescott, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited (n. 3 above), and essays by Martha Moore Trescott and Autumn Stanley in the same volume. Trescott continued her work in "Lillian Moller Gilbreth and the Founding of Modern Industrial Engineering," in Rothschild, Machina ex Dea (n. 3 above), pp. 23-37, and "Women Engineers in History: Profiles in Holism and Persistence," in Women in Scientific and Engineering Professions, ed. Violet B. Haas and Carolyn C. Perrucci (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1984), pp. 181-205. Stanley's book Mothers and Daughters of Invention: Notes for a Revised History of Technology (Metuchen, N.J., 1993) is now available (see the review essay by Judith McGaw in this issue, which discusses this among other works). See also Stanley's article "The Patent Office as Conjurer: The Vanishing Lady Trick in a Nineteenth-Century Historical Source," in Women, Work, and Technology: Transformations, ed. Barbara Drygulski Wright et al. (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1987). For women inventors see also Anne L. Macdonald's anecdotal but rich Feminine Ingenuity: Women and Invention in America (New York, 1992) (also reviewed by Judith McGaw in her essay in this issue); Deborah J. Merritt, "Hypatia in the Patent Office: Women Inventors and the Law, 1865- 1900," American Journal of Legal History 35 (1991): 235-306; and the review essay by Judith McGaw in this issue.
72. See Deborah J. Warner, "Women Inventors at the Centennial," in Trescott, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited (n. 3 above), and essays by Martha Moore Trescott and Autumn Stanley in the same volume. Trescott continued her work in "Lillian Moller Gilbreth and the Founding of Modern Industrial Engineering," in Rothschild, Machina ex Dea (n. 3 above), pp. 23-37, and "Women Engineers in History: Profiles in Holism and Persistence," in Women in Scientific and Engineering Professions, ed. Violet B. Haas and Carolyn C. Perrucci (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1984), pp. 181-205. Stanley's book Mothers and Daughters of Invention: Notes for a Revised History of Technology (Metuchen, N.J., 1993) is now available (see the review essay by Judith McGaw in this issue, which discusses this among other works). See also Stanley's article "The Patent Office as Conjurer: The Vanishing Lady Trick in a Nineteenth-Century Historical Source," in Women, Work, and Technology: Transformations, ed. Barbara Drygulski Wright et al. (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1987). For women inventors see also Anne L. Macdonald's anecdotal but rich Feminine Ingenuity: Women and Invention in America (New York, 1992) (also reviewed by Judith McGaw in her essay in this issue); Deborah J. Merritt, "Hypatia in the Patent Office: Women Inventors and the Law, 1865- 1900," American Journal of Legal History 35 (1991): 235-306; and the review essay by Judith McGaw in this issue.
73. See Deborah J. Warner, "Women Inventors at the Centennial," in Trescott, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited (n. 3 above), and essays by Martha Moore Trescott and Autumn Stanley in the same volume. Trescott continued her work in "Lillian Moller Gilbreth and the Founding of Modern Industrial Engineering," in Rothschild, Machina ex Dea (n. 3 above), pp. 23-37, and "Women Engineers in History: Profiles in Holism and Persistence," in Women in Scientific and Engineering Professions, ed. Violet B. Haas and Carolyn C. Perrucci (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1984), pp. 181-205. Stanley's book Mothers and Daughters of Invention: Notes for a Revised History of Technology (Metuchen, N.J., 1993) is now available (see the review essay by Judith McGaw in this issue, which discusses this among other works). See also Stanley's article "The Patent Office as Conjurer: The Vanishing Lady Trick in a Nineteenth-Century Historical Source," in Women, Work, and Technology: Transformations, ed. Barbara Drygulski Wright et al. (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1987). For women inventors see also Anne L. Macdonald's anecdotal but rich Feminine Ingenuity: Women and Invention in America (New York, 1992) (also reviewed by Judith McGaw in her essay in this issue); Deborah J. Merritt, "Hypatia in the Patent Office: Women Inventors and the Law, 1865- 1900," American Journal of Legal History 35 (1991): 235-306; and the review essay by Judith McGaw in this issue.
74. See Deborah J. Warner, "Women Inventors at the Centennial," in Trescott, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited (n. 3 above), and essays by Martha Moore Trescott and Autumn Stanley in the same volume. Trescott continued her work in "Lillian Moller Gilbreth and the Founding of Modern Industrial Engineering," in Rothschild, Machina ex Dea (n. 3 above), pp. 23-37, and "Women Engineers in History: Profiles in Holism and Persistence," in Women in Scientific and Engineering Professions, ed. Violet B. Haas and Carolyn C. Perrucci (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1984), pp. 181-205. Stanley's book Mothers and Daughters of Invention: Notes for a Revised History of Technology (Metuchen, N.J., 1993) is now available (see the review essay by Judith McGaw in this issue, which discusses this among other works). See also Stanley's article "The Patent Office as Conjurer: The Vanishing Lady Trick in a Nineteenth-Century Historical Source," in Women, Work, and Technology: Transformations, ed. Barbara Drygulski Wright et al. (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1987). For women inventors see also Anne L. Macdonald's anecdotal but rich Feminine Ingenuity: Women and Invention in America (New York, 1992) (also reviewed by Judith McGaw in her essay in this issue); Deborah J. Merritt, "Hypatia in the Patent Office: Women Inventors and the Law, 1865-1900," American Journal of Legal History 35 (1991): 235-306; and the review essay by Judith McGaw in this issue.
75. See Sally L. Hacker, Pleasure, Power, and Technology: Some Tales of Gender, Engineering, and the Cooperative Workplace (Boston, 1989) and Margaret W. Rossiter's brilliantly researched tomes, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 (Baltimore, 1982) and Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action, 1940- 1972 (Baltimore, 1995). See also Carroll Pursell, "'Am I a Lady or an Engineer?' The Origins of the Women's Engineering Society in Britain, 1918-1940," Technology and Cultured (1993): 78-97; Ruth Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology: Engineering in the U.S., 1880-1945" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1992), chapter 6. For German case studies, see: Margot Füchs, Wie die Väter, so die Töchter: Frauenstudium an der Technischen Hochschule München, 1899-1970 (Munich, 1994); Barbara Duden and Hans Ebert, "Die Anfänge des Frauenstudiums an der Technischen Hochschule Berlin," in Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technischen Universität Berlin, 1879-1979, ed. Reinhard Rürup (Berlin, 1979). Judith S. McIlwee and J. Gregg Robinson, Women in Engineering: Gender, Power and Workplace Culture (Albany, 1992) , is an excellent study. On women in the professions see Joan Brumberg and Nancy Tomes, "Women in the Professions: A Research Agenda for American Historians," Reviews in American History 10 (1982): 275-96.
76. See Sally L. Hacker, Pleasure, Power, and Technology: Some Tales of Gender, Engineering, and the Cooperative Workplace (Boston, 1989) and Margaret W. Rossiter's brilliantly researched tomes, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 (Baltimore, 1982) and Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action, 1940- 1972 (Baltimore, 1995). See also Carroll Pursell, "'Am I a Lady or an Engineer?' The Origins of the Women's Engineering Society in Britain, 1918-1940," Technology and Cultured (1993): 78-97; Ruth Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology: Engineering in the U.S., 1880-1945" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1992), chapter 6. For German case studies, see: Margot Füchs, Wie die Väter, so die Töchter: Frauenstudium an der Technischen Hochschule München, 1899-1970 (Munich, 1994); Barbara Duden and Hans Ebert, "Die Anfänge des Frauenstudiums an der Technischen Hochschule Berlin," in Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technischen Universität Berlin, 1879-1979, ed. Reinhard Rürup (Berlin, 1979). Judith S. McIlwee and J. Gregg Robinson, Women in Engineering: Gender, Power and Workplace Culture (Albany, 1992) , is an excellent study. On women in the professions see Joan Brumberg and Nancy Tomes, "Women in the Professions: A Research Agenda for American Historians," Reviews in American History 10 (1982): 275-96.
77. See Sally L. Hacker, Pleasure, Power, and Technology: Some Tales of Gender, Engineering, and the Cooperative Workplace (Boston, 1989) and Margaret W. Rossiter's brilliantly researched tomes, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 (Baltimore, 1982) and Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action, 1940-1972 (Baltimore, 1995). See also Carroll Pursell, "'Am I a Lady or an Engineer?' The Origins of the Women's Engineering Society in Britain, 1918-1940," Technology and Cultured (1993): 78-97; Ruth Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology: Engineering in the U.S., 1880-1945" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1992), chapter 6. For German case studies, see: Margot Füchs, Wie die Väter, so die Töchter: Frauenstudium an der Technischen Hochschule München, 1899-1970 (Munich, 1994); Barbara Duden and Hans Ebert, "Die Anfänge des Frauenstudiums an der Technischen Hochschule Berlin," in Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technischen Universität Berlin, 1879-1979, ed. Reinhard Rürup (Berlin, 1979). Judith S. McIlwee and J. Gregg Robinson, Women in Engineering: Gender, Power and Workplace Culture (Albany, 1992) , is an excellent study. On women in the professions see Joan Brumberg and Nancy Tomes, "Women in the Professions: A Research Agenda for American Historians," Reviews in American History 10 (1982): 275-96.
78. See Sally L. Hacker, Pleasure, Power, and Technology: Some Tales of Gender, Engineering, and the Cooperative Workplace (Boston, 1989) and Margaret W. Rossiter's brilliantly researched tomes, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 (Baltimore, 1982) and Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action, 1940- 1972 (Baltimore, 1995). See also Carroll Pursell, "'Am I a Lady or an Engineer?' The Origins of the Women's Engineering Society in Britain, 1918-1940," Technology and Cultured (1993): 78-97; Ruth Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology: Engineering in the U.S., 1880-1945" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1992), chapter 6. For German case studies, see: Margot Füchs, Wie die Väter, so die Töchter: Frauenstudium an der Technischen Hochschule München, 1899-1970 (Munich, 1994); Barbara Duden and Hans Ebert, "Die Anfänge des Frauenstudiums an der Technischen Hochschule Berlin," in Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technischen Universität Berlin, 1879-1979, ed. Reinhard Rürup (Berlin, 1979). Judith S. McIlwee and J. Gregg Robinson, Women in Engineering: Gender, Power and Workplace Culture (Albany, 1992) , is an excellent study. On women in the professions see Joan Brumberg and Nancy Tomes, "Women in the Professions: A Research Agenda for American Historians," Reviews in American History 10 (1982): 275-96.
79. See Sally L. Hacker, Pleasure, Power, and Technology: Some Tales of Gender, Engineering, and the Cooperative Workplace (Boston, 1989) and Margaret W. Rossiter's brilliantly researched tomes, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 (Baltimore, 1982) and Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action, 1940- 1972 (Baltimore, 1995). See also Carroll Pursell, "'Am I a Lady or an Engineer?' The Origins of the Women's Engineering Society in Britain, 1918-1940," Technology and Cultured (1993): 78-97; Ruth Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology: Engineering in the U.S., 1880-1945" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1992), chapter 6. For German case studies, see: Margot Füchs, Wie die Väter, so die Töchter: Frauenstudium an der Technischen Hochschule München, 1899-1970 (Munich, 1994); Barbara Duden and Hans Ebert, "Die Anfänge des Frauenstudiums an der Technischen Hochschule Berlin," in Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technischen Universität Berlin, 1879-1979, ed. Reinhard Rürup (Berlin, 1979). Judith S. McIlwee and J. Gregg Robinson, Women in Engineering: Gender, Power and Workplace Culture (Albany, 1992) , is an excellent study. On women in the professions see Joan Brumberg and Nancy Tomes, "Women in the Professions: A Research Agenda for American Historians," Reviews in American History 10 (1982): 275-96.
80. See Sally L. Hacker, Pleasure, Power, and Technology: Some Tales of Gender, Engineering, and the Cooperative Workplace (Boston, 1989) and Margaret W. Rossiter's brilliantly researched tomes, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 (Baltimore, 1982) and Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action, 1940- 1972 (Baltimore, 1995). See also Carroll Pursell, "'Am I a Lady or an Engineer?' The Origins of the Women's Engineering Society in Britain, 1918-1940," Technology and Cultured (1993): 78-97; Ruth Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology: Engineering in the U.S., 1880-1945" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1992), chapter 6. For German case studies, see: Margot Füchs, Wie die Väter, so die Töchter: Frauenstudium an der Technischen Hochschule München, 1899-1970 (Munich, 1994); Barbara Duden and Hans Ebert, "Die Anfänge des Frauenstudiums an der Technischen Hochschule Berlin," in Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technischen Universität Berlin, 1879-1979, ed. Reinhard Rürup (Berlin, 1979). Judith S. McIlwee and J. Gregg Robinson, Women in Engineering: Gender, Power and Workplace Culture (Albany, 1992) , is an excellent study. On women in the professions see Joan Brumberg and Nancy Tomes, "Women in the Professions: A Research Agenda for American Historians," Reviews in American History 10 (1982): 275-96.
81. See Sally L. Hacker, Pleasure, Power, and Technology: Some Tales of Gender, Engineering, and the Cooperative Workplace (Boston, 1989) and Margaret W. Rossiter's brilliantly researched tomes, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 (Baltimore, 1982) and Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action, 1940- 1972 (Baltimore, 1995). See also Carroll Pursell, "'Am I a Lady or an Engineer?' The Origins of the Women's Engineering Society in Britain, 1918-1940," Technology and Cultured (1993): 78-97; Ruth Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology: Engineering in the U.S., 1880-1945" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1992), chapter 6. For German case studies, see: Margot Füchs, Wie die Väter, so die Töchter: Frauenstudium an der Technischen Hochschule München, 1899-1970 (Munich, 1994); Barbara Duden and Hans Ebert, "Die Anfänge des Frauenstudiums an der Technischen Hochschule Berlin," in Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technischen Universität Berlin, 1879-1979, ed. Reinhard Rürup (Berlin, 1979). Judith S. McIlwee and J. Gregg Robinson, Women in Engineering: Gender, Power and Workplace Culture (Albany, 1992) , is an excellent study. On women in the professions see Joan Brumberg and Nancy Tomes, "Women in the Professions: A Research Agenda for American Historians," Reviews in American History 10 (1982): 275-96.
82. See Sally L. Hacker, Pleasure, Power, and Technology: Some Tales of Gender, Engineering, and the Cooperative Workplace (Boston, 1989) and Margaret W. Rossiter's brilliantly researched tomes, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 (Baltimore, 1982) and Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action, 1940- 1972 (Baltimore, 1995). See also Carroll Pursell, "'Am I a Lady or an Engineer?' The Origins of the Women's Engineering Society in Britain, 1918-1940," Technology and Cultured (1993): 78-97; Ruth Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology: Engineering in the U.S., 1880-1945" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1992), chapter 6. For German case studies, see: Margot Füchs, Wie die Väter, so die Töchter: Frauenstudium an der Technischen Hochschule München, 1899-1970 (Munich, 1994); Barbara Duden and Hans Ebert, "Die Anfänge des Frauenstudiums an der Technischen Hochschule Berlin," in Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technischen Universität Berlin, 1879-1979, ed. Reinhard Rürup (Berlin, 1979). Judith S. McIlwee and J. Gregg Robinson, Women in Engineering: Gender, Power and Workplace Culture (Albany, 1992) , is an excellent study. On women in the professions see Joan Brumberg and Nancy Tomes, "Women in the Professions: A Research Agenda for American Historians," Reviews in American History 10 (1982): 275-96.
83. See Sally L. Hacker, Pleasure, Power, and Technology: Some Tales of Gender, Engineering, and the Cooperative Workplace (Boston, 1989) and Margaret W. Rossiter's brilliantly researched tomes, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 (Baltimore, 1982) and Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action, 1940- 1972 (Baltimore, 1995). See also Carroll Pursell, "'Am I a Lady or an Engineer?' The Origins of the Women's Engineering Society in Britain, 1918-1940," Technology and Cultured (1993): 78-97; Ruth Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology: Engineering in the U.S., 1880-1945" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1992), chapter 6. For German case studies, see: Margot Füchs, Wie die Väter, so die Töchter: Frauenstudium an der Technischen Hochschule München, 1899-1970 (Munich, 1994); Barbara Duden and Hans Ebert, "Die Anfänge des Frauenstudiums an der Technischen Hochschule Berlin," in Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technischen Universität Berlin, 1879-1979, ed. Reinhard Rürup (Berlin, 1979). Judith S. McIlwee and J. Gregg Robinson, Women in Engineering: Gender, Power and Workplace Culture (Albany, 1992) , is an excellent study. On women in the professions see Joan Brumberg and Nancy Tomes, "Women in the Professions: A Research Agenda for American Historians," Reviews in American History 10 (1982): 275-96.
84. Cynthia Cockburn, in Brothers: Male Dominance and Technical Change (London, 1983) and Machinery of Dominance: Women, Men, and Technical Know-How (London, 1985; reprint, with a foreword by Ruth Schwartz Cowan, Boston, 1988), early on described masculinity as a relationship to femininity. See also Mary Freifeld, "Technological Change and the 'Self-Acting' Mule: A Study of Skill and Sexual Division of Labour," Social History 11 (1986): 319-43; Ava Baron, "Contested Terrain Revisited: Technology and Gender Definitions of Work in the Printing Industry, 1850-1920," in Barbara Drygulski Wright, Women, Work, and Technology.
85. Cynthia Cockburn, in Brothers: Male Dominance and Technical Change (London, 1983) and Machinery of Dominance: Women, Men, and Technical Know-How (London, 1985; reprint, with a foreword by Ruth Schwartz Cowan, Boston, 1988), early on described masculinity as a relationship to femininity. See also Mary Freifeld, "Technological Change and the 'Self-Acting' Mule: A Study of Skill and Sexual Division of Labour," Social History 11 (1986): 319-43; Ava Baron, "Contested Terrain Revisited: Technology and Gender Definitions of Work in the Printing Industry, 1850-1920," in Barbara Drygulski Wright, Women, Work, and Technology.
86. Cynthia Cockburn, in Brothers: Male Dominance and Technical Change (London, 1983) and Machinery of Dominance: Women, Men, and Technical Know-How (London, 1985; reprint, with a foreword by Ruth Schwartz Cowan, Boston, 1988), early on described masculinity as a relationship to femininity. See also Mary Freifeld, "Technological Change and the 'Self-Acting' Mule: A Study of Skill and Sexual Division of Labour," Social History 11 (1986): 319-43; Ava Baron, "Contested Terrain Revisited: Technology and Gender Definitions of Work in the Printing Industry, 1850-1920," in Barbara Drygulski Wright, Women, Work, and Technology.
87. Cynthia Cockburn, in Brothers: Male Dominance and Technical Change (London, 1983) and Machinery of Dominance: Women, Men, and Technical Know-How (London, 1985; reprint, with a foreword by Ruth Schwartz Cowan, Boston, 1988), early on described masculinity as a relationship to femininity. See also Mary Freifeld, "Technological Change and the 'Self-Acting' Mule: A Study of Skill and Sexual Division of Labour," Social History 11 (1986): 319-43; Ava Baron, "Contested Terrain Revisited: Technology and Gender Definitions of Work in the Printing Industry, 1850-1920," in Barbara Drygulski Wright, Women, Work, and Technology.
88. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres" (n. 15 above); Carroll W. Pursell, "The Construction of Masculinity and Technology," Polhem 11 (1993): 206- 19. This was not the first time he had written about the subject; see Carroll W. Pursell, "Toys, Technology and Sex Roles in America, 1920-1940," in Trescott, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited. See also Bruce Sinclair, "Technology on Its Toes: Late Victorian Ballets, Pageants, and Industrial Exhibitions" in Cutcliffe and Post, In Context (n. 15 above); Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology," chaps. 3-5. For general histories and sociologies on masculinity see, for example, Brian Easlea, Fathering the Unthinkable (London, 1981); Mark C. Carnes and Clyde Griffen, eds., Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America (Chicago, 1990); Paul Willis, "Masculinity and Factory Labor," in Working Class Culture, ed. John Clarke et al. (London, 1979); Susan Johnson, "Bulls, Beans and Dancing Boys," Radical History Review 60 (1994): 4-37; E. Anthony Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York, 1993); David D. Gilmore, Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity (New Haven, Conn., 1990). See also Arwen Mohun's article in this issue.
89. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres" (n. 15 above); Carroll W. Pursell, "The Construction of Masculinity and Technology," Polhem 11 (1993): 206-19. This was not the first time he had written about the subject; see Carroll W. Pursell, "Toys, Technology and Sex Roles in America, 1920-1940," in Trescott, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited. See also Bruce Sinclair, "Technology on Its Toes: Late Victorian Ballets, Pageants, and Industrial Exhibitions" in Cutcliffe and Post, In Context (n. 15 above); Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology," chaps. 3-5. For general histories and sociologies on masculinity see, for example, Brian Easlea, Fathering the Unthinkable (London, 1981); Mark C. Carnes and Clyde Griffen, eds., Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America (Chicago, 1990); Paul Willis, "Masculinity and Factory Labor," in Working Class Culture, ed. John Clarke et al. (London, 1979); Susan Johnson, "Bulls, Beans and Dancing Boys," Radical History Review 60 (1994): 4-37; E. Anthony Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York, 1993); David D. Gilmore, Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity (New Haven, Conn., 1990). See also Arwen Mohun's article in this issue.
90. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres" (n. 15 above); Carroll W. Pursell, "The Construction of Masculinity and Technology," Polhem 11 (1993): 206- 19. This was not the first time he had written about the subject; see Carroll W. Pursell, "Toys, Technology and Sex Roles in America, 1920-1940," in Trescott, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited. See also Bruce Sinclair, "Technology on Its Toes: Late Victorian Ballets, Pageants, and Industrial Exhibitions" in Cutcliffe and Post, In Context (n. 15 above); Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology," chaps. 3-5. For general histories and sociologies on masculinity see, for example, Brian Easlea, Fathering the Unthinkable (London, 1981); Mark C. Carnes and Clyde Griffen, eds., Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America (Chicago, 1990); Paul Willis, "Masculinity and Factory Labor," in Working Class Culture, ed. John Clarke et al. (London, 1979); Susan Johnson, "Bulls, Beans and Dancing Boys," Radical History Review 60 (1994): 4-37; E. Anthony Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York, 1993); David D. Gilmore, Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity (New Haven, Conn., 1990). See also Arwen Mohun's article in this issue.
91. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres" (n. 15 above); Carroll W. Pursell, "The Construction of Masculinity and Technology," Polhem 11 (1993): 206- 19. This was not the first time he had written about the subject; see Carroll W. Pursell, "Toys, Technology and Sex Roles in America, 1920-1940," in Trescott, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited. See also Bruce Sinclair, "Technology on Its Toes: Late Victorian Ballets, Pageants, and Industrial Exhibitions" in Cutcliffe and Post, In Context (n. 15 above); Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology," chaps. 3-5. For general histories and sociologies on masculinity see, for example, Brian Easlea, Fathering the Unthinkable (London, 1981); Mark C. Carnes and Clyde Griffen, eds., Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America (Chicago, 1990); Paul Willis, "Masculinity and Factory Labor," in Working Class Culture, ed. John Clarke et al. (London, 1979); Susan Johnson, "Bulls, Beans and Dancing Boys," Radical History Review 60 (1994): 4-37; E. Anthony Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York, 1993); David D. Gilmore, Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity (New Haven, Conn., 1990). See also Arwen Mohun's article in this issue.
92. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres" (n. 15 above); Carroll W. Pursell, "The Construction of Masculinity and Technology," Polhem 11 (1993): 206- 19. This was not the first time he had written about the subject; see Carroll W. Pursell, "Toys, Technology and Sex Roles in America, 1920-1940," in Trescott, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited. See also Bruce Sinclair, "Technology on Its Toes: Late Victorian Ballets, Pageants, and Industrial Exhibitions" in Cutcliffe and Post, In Context (n. 15 above); Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology," chaps. 3-5. For general histories and sociologies on masculinity see, for example, Brian Easlea, Fathering the Unthinkable (London, 1981); Mark C. Carnes and Clyde Griffen, eds., Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America (Chicago, 1990); Paul Willis, "Masculinity and Factory Labor," in Working Class Culture, ed. John Clarke et al. (London, 1979); Susan Johnson, "Bulls, Beans and Dancing Boys," Radical History Review 60 (1994): 4-37; E. Anthony Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York, 1993); David D. Gilmore, Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity (New Haven, Conn., 1990). See also Arwen Mohun's article in this issue.
93. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres" (n. 15 above); Carroll W. Pursell, "The Construction of Masculinity and Technology," Polhem 11 (1993): 206- 19. This was not the first time he had written about the subject; see Carroll W. Pursell, "Toys, Technology and Sex Roles in America, 1920-1940," in Trescott, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited. See also Bruce Sinclair, "Technology on Its Toes: Late Victorian Ballets, Pageants, and Industrial Exhibitions" in Cutcliffe and Post, In Context (n. 15 above); Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology," chaps. 3-5. For general histories and sociologies on masculinity see, for example, Brian Easlea, Fathering the Unthinkable (London, 1981); Mark C. Carnes and Clyde Griffen, eds., Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America (Chicago, 1990); Paul Willis, "Masculinity and Factory Labor," in Working Class Culture, ed. John Clarke et al. (London, 1979); Susan Johnson, "Bulls, Beans and Dancing Boys," Radical History Review 60 (1994): 4-37; E. Anthony Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York, 1993); David D. Gilmore, Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity (New Haven, Conn., 1990). See also Arwen Mohun's article in this issue.
94. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres" (n. 15 above); Carroll W. Pursell, "The Construction of Masculinity and Technology," Polhem 11 (1993): 206- 19. This was not the first time he had written about the subject; see Carroll W. Pursell, "Toys, Technology and Sex Roles in America, 1920-1940," in Trescott, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited. See also Bruce Sinclair, "Technology on Its Toes: Late Victorian Ballets, Pageants, and Industrial Exhibitions" in Cutcliffe and Post, In Context (n. 15 above); Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology," chaps. 3-5. For general histories and sociologies on masculinity see, for example, Brian Easlea, Fathering the Unthinkable (London, 1981); Mark C. Carnes and Clyde Griffen, eds., Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America (Chicago, 1990); Paul Willis, "Masculinity and Factory Labor," in Working Class Culture, ed. John Clarke et al. (London, 1979); Susan Johnson, "Bulls, Beans and Dancing Boys," Radical History Review 60 (1994): 4-37; E. Anthony Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York, 1993); David D. Gilmore, Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity (New Haven, Conn., 1990). See also Arwen Mohun's article in this issue.
95. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres" (n. 15 above); Carroll W. Pursell, "The Construction of Masculinity and Technology," Polhem 11 (1993): 206- 19. This was not the first time he had written about the subject; see Carroll W. Pursell, "Toys, Technology and Sex Roles in America, 1920-1940," in Trescott, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited. See also Bruce Sinclair, "Technology on Its Toes: Late Victorian Ballets, Pageants, and Industrial Exhibitions" in Cutcliffe and Post, In Context (n. 15 above); Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology," chaps. 3-5. For general histories and sociologies on masculinity see, for example, Brian Easlea, Fathering the Unthinkable (London, 1981); Mark C. Carnes and Clyde Griffen, eds., Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America (Chicago, 1990); Paul Willis, "Masculinity and Factory Labor," in Working Class Culture, ed. John Clarke et al. (London, 1979); Susan Johnson, "Bulls, Beans and Dancing Boys," Radical History Review 60 (1994): 4-37; E. Anthony Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York, 1993); David D. Gilmore, Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity (New Haven, Conn., 1990). See also Arwen Mohun's article in this issue.
96. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres" (n. 15 above); Carroll W. Pursell, "The Construction of Masculinity and Technology," Polhem 11 (1993): 206- 19. This was not the first time he had written about the subject; see Carroll W. Pursell, "Toys, Technology and Sex Roles in America, 1920-1940," in Trescott, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited. See also Bruce Sinclair, "Technology on Its Toes: Late Victorian Ballets, Pageants, and Industrial Exhibitions" in Cutcliffe and Post, In Context (n. 15 above); Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology," chaps. 3-5. For general histories and sociologies on masculinity see, for example, Brian Easlea, Fathering the Unthinkable (London, 1981); Mark C. Carnes and Clyde Griffen, eds., Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America (Chicago, 1990); Paul Willis, "Masculinity and Factory Labor," in Working Class Culture, ed. John Clarke et al. (London, 1979); Susan Johnson, "Bulls, Beans and Dancing Boys," Radical History Review 60 (1994): 4-37; E. Anthony Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York, 1993); David D. Gilmore, Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity (New Haven, Conn., 1990). See also Arwen Mohun's article in this issue.
97. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres" (n. 15 above); Carroll W. Pursell, "The Construction of Masculinity and Technology," Polhem 11 (1993): 206- 19. This was not the first time he had written about the subject; see Carroll W. Pursell, "Toys, Technology and Sex Roles in America, 1920-1940," in Trescott, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited. See also Bruce Sinclair, "Technology on Its Toes: Late Victorian Ballets, Pageants, and Industrial Exhibitions" in Cutcliffe and Post, In Context (n. 15 above); Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology," chaps. 3-5. For general histories and sociologies on masculinity see, for example, Brian Easlea, Fathering the Unthinkable (London, 1981); Mark C. Carnes and Clyde Griffen, eds., Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America (Chicago, 1990); Paul Willis, "Masculinity and Factory Labor," in Working Class Culture, ed. John Clarke et al. (London, 1979); Susan Johnson, "Bulls, Beans and Dancing Boys," Radical History Review 60 (1994): 4-37; E. Anthony Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York, 1993); David D. Gilmore, Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity (New Haven, Conn., 1990). See also Arwen Mohun's article in this issue.
98. McGaw, "No Passive Victims, No Separate Spheres" (n. 15 above); Carroll W. Pursell, "The Construction of Masculinity and Technology," Polhem 11 (1993): 206- 19. This was not the first time he had written about the subject; see Carroll W. Pursell, "Toys, Technology and Sex Roles in America, 1920-1940," in Trescott, Dynamos and Virgins Revisited. See also Bruce Sinclair, "Technology on Its Toes: Late Victorian Ballets, Pageants, and Industrial Exhibitions" in Cutcliffe and Post, In Context (n. 15 above); Oldenziel, "Gender and the Meanings of Technology," chaps. 3-5. For general histories and sociologies on masculinity see, for example, Brian Easlea, Fathering the Unthinkable (London, 1981); Mark C. Carnes and Clyde Griffen, eds., Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America (Chicago, 1990); Paul Willis, "Masculinity and Factory Labor," in Working Class Culture, ed. John Clarke et al. (London, 1979); Susan Johnson, "Bulls, Beans and Dancing Boys," Radical History Review 60 (1994): 4-37; E. Anthony Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York, 1993); David D. Gilmore, Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity (New Haven, Conn., 1990). See also Arwen Mohun's article in this issue.
99. Robert C. Post, High Performance: The Culture and Technology of Drag Racing, 1950-1990 (Baltimore, 1994).
100. See the work of Cynthia Cockburn, Ava Baron, Judy McGaw, Bruce Sinclair, Ruth Oldenziel, and Carroll Pursell, cited in nn. 19-21.
101. For examples of social construction and actor network theory in technology studies, see Wiebe Bijker, Thomas Hughes, and Trevor Pinch, eds. The Social Construction of Technological Systems (Cambridge, Mass., 1987). For an argument in support of actor-network theory in studies of gender and technology, see Keith Grint and Rosalind Gill, The Gender-Technology Relation: Contemporary Theory and Research (London, 1995). For examples of other sociological and theoretical scholarship see Cheris Kramarae, ed., Technology and Women's Voices: Keeping in Touch (London, 1988); Evelyn Fox Keller and Marianne Hirsch, eds., Conflicts in Feminism (New York, 1990); Gill Kirkup and Laurie Smith Keller, eds., Inventing Women: Science, Technology and Gender (London, 1992); Eileen Green, Jenny Owen, and Den Pain, eds., Gendered by Design? Information Technology and Office Systems (Bristol, Penn., 1993).
102. For examples of social construction and actor network theory in technology studies, see Wiebe Bijker, Thomas Hughes, and Trevor Pinch, eds. The Social Construction of Technological Systems (Cambridge, Mass., 1987). For an argument in support of actor-network theory in studies of gender and technology, see Keith Grint and Rosalind Gill, The Gender-Technology Relation: Contemporary Theory and Research (London, 1995). For examples of other sociological and theoretical scholarship see Cheris Kramarae, ed., Technology and Women's Voices: Keeping in Touch (London, 1988); Evelyn Fox Keller and Marianne Hirsch, eds., Conflicts in Feminism (New York, 1990); Gill Kirkup and Laurie Smith Keller, eds., Inventing Women: Science, Technology and Gender (London, 1992); Eileen Green, Jenny Owen, and Den Pain, eds., Gendered by Design? Information Technology and Office Systems (Bristol, Penn., 1993).
103. For examples of social construction and actor network theory in technology studies, see Wiebe Bijker, Thomas Hughes, and Trevor Pinch, eds. The Social Construction of Technological Systems (Cambridge, Mass., 1987). For an argument in support of actor-network theory in studies of gender and technology, see Keith Grint and Rosalind Gill, The Gender-Technology Relation: Contemporary Theory and Research (London, 1995). For examples of other sociological and theoretical scholarship see Cheris Kramarae, ed., Technology and Women's Voices: Keeping in Touch (London, 1988); Evelyn Fox Keller and Marianne Hirsch, eds., Conflicts in Feminism (New York, 1990); Gill Kirkup and Laurie Smith Keller, eds., Inventing Women: Science, Technology and Gender (London, 1992); Eileen Green, Jenny Owen, and Den Pain, eds., Gendered by Design? Information Technology and Office Systems (Bristol, Penn., 1993).
104. For examples of social construction and actor network theory in technology studies, see Wiebe Bijker, Thomas Hughes, and Trevor Pinch, eds. The Social Construction of Technological Systems (Cambridge, Mass., 1987). For an argument in support of actor-network theory in studies of gender and technology, see Keith Grint and Rosalind Gill, The Gender-Technology Relation: Contemporary Theory and Research (London, 1995). For examples of other sociological and theoretical scholarship see Cheris Kramarae, ed., Technology and Women's Voices: Keeping in Touch (London, 1988); Evelyn Fox Keller and Marianne Hirsch, eds., Conflicts in Feminism (New York, 1990); Gill Kirkup and Laurie Smith Keller, eds., Inventing Women: Science, Technology and Gender (London, 1992); Eileen Green, Jenny Owen, and Den Pain, eds., Gendered by Design? Information Technology and Office Systems (Bristol, Penn., 1993).
105. For examples of social construction and actor network theory in technology studies, see Wiebe Bijker, Thomas Hughes, and Trevor Pinch, eds. The Social Construction of Technological Systems (Cambridge, Mass., 1987). For an argument in support of actor-network theory in studies of gender and technology, see Keith Grint and Rosalind Gill, The Gender-Technology Relation: Contemporary Theory and Research (London, 1995). For examples of other sociological and theoretical scholarship see Cheris Kramarae, ed., Technology and Women's Voices: Keeping in Touch (London, 1988); Evelyn Fox Keller and Marianne Hirsch, eds., Conflicts in Feminism (New York, 1990); Gill Kirkup and Laurie Smith Keller, eds., Inventing Women: Science, Technology and Gender (London, 1992); Eileen Green, Jenny Owen, and Den Pain, eds., Gendered by Design? Information Technology and Office Systems (Bristol, Penn., 1993).
106. For examples of social construction and actor network theory in technology studies, see Wiebe Bijker, Thomas Hughes, and Trevor Pinch, eds. The Social Construction of Technological Systems (Cambridge, Mass., 1987). For an argument in support of actor-network theory in studies of gender and technology, see Keith Grint and Rosalind Gill, The Gender-Technology Relation: Contemporary Theory and Research (London, 1995). For examples of other sociological and theoretical scholarship see Cheris Kramarae, ed., Technology and Women's Voices: Keeping in Touch (London, 1988); Evelyn Fox Keller and Marianne Hirsch, eds., Conflicts in Feminism (New York, 1990); Gill Kirkup and Laurie Smith Keller, eds., Inventing Women: Science, Technology and Gender (London, 1992); Eileen Green, Jenny Owen, and Den Pain, eds., Gendered by Design? Information Technology and Office Systems (Bristol, Penn., 1993).
107. Bryan C. Taylor, "Register of the Repressed: Women's Voice and the Body in the Nuclear Weapons Organization," Quarterly Journal of Speech 97 (1993): 267-85. Jane Caputi, "The Metaphors of Radiation: or, Why a Beautiful Woman is Like a Nuclear Power Plant," Women's Studies International Forum 14 (1991): 423-42; Paul N. Edwards, "The Army and the Microworld: Computers and the Politics of Gender Identity," Signs 16 (1990); Carol Cohn, "Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals," Signs 13 (1987): 687-718; Joseph O'Connell, "The Fine- Tuning of a Golden Ear: High-End Audio and the Evolutionary Model of Technology," Technology and Culture 33 (1992): 1-37. For an introduction to work in the field of information and communication studies, see Liesbet van Zoonen, "Feminist Theory and Information Technology," Media, Culture & Society 14 (1992): 9-30; and Maureen Ebben and Cheris Kramarae, "Women and Information Technologies: Creating a Cyberspace of Our Own," in Women, Information Technology, and Scholarship, ed. H. Jeanie Taylor, Cheris Kramarae, Maureen Ebben (Urbana, Ill., 1993).
108. Bryan C. Taylor, "Register of the Repressed: Women's Voice and the Body in the Nuclear Weapons Organization," Quarterly Journal of Speech 97 (1993): 267-85. Jane Caputi, "The Metaphors of Radiation: or, Why a Beautiful Woman is Like a Nuclear Power Plant," Women's Studies International Forum 14 (1991): 423-42; Paul N. Edwards, "The Army and the Microworld: Computers and the Politics of Gender Identity," Signs 16 (1990); Carol Cohn, "Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals," Signs 13 (1987): 687-718; Joseph O'Connell, "The Fine- Tuning of a Golden Ear: High-End Audio and the Evolutionary Model of Technology," Technology and Culture 33 (1992): 1-37. For an introduction to work in the field of information and communication studies, see Liesbet van Zoonen, "Feminist Theory and Information Technology," Media, Culture & Society 14 (1992): 9-30; and Maureen Ebben and Cheris Kramarae, "Women and Information Technologies: Creating a Cyberspace of Our Own," in Women, Information Technology, and Scholarship, ed. H. Jeanie Taylor, Cheris Kramarae, Maureen Ebben (Urbana, Ill., 1993).
109. Bryan C. Taylor, "Register of the Repressed: Women's Voice and the Body in the Nuclear Weapons Organization," Quarterly Journal of Speech 97 (1993): 267-85. Jane Caputi, "The Metaphors of Radiation: or, Why a Beautiful Woman is Like a Nuclear Power Plant," Women's Studies International Forum 14 (1991): 423-42; Paul N. Edwards, "The Army and the Microworld: Computers and the Politics of Gender Identity," Signs 16 (1990); Carol Cohn, "Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals," Signs 13 (1987): 687-718; Joseph O'Connell, "The Fine- Tuning of a Golden Ear: High-End Audio and the Evolutionary Model of Technology," Technology and Culture 33 (1992): 1-37. For an introduction to work in the field of information and communication studies, see Liesbet van Zoonen, "Feminist Theory and Information Technology," Media, Culture & Society 14 (1992): 9-30; and Maureen Ebben and Cheris Kramarae, "Women and Information Technologies: Creating a Cyberspace of Our Own," in Women, Information Technology, and Scholarship, ed. H. Jeanie Taylor, Cheris Kramarae, Maureen Ebben (Urbana, Ill., 1993).
110. Bryan C. Taylor, "Register of the Repressed: Women's Voice and the Body in the Nuclear Weapons Organization," Quarterly Journal of Speech 97 (1993): 267-85. Jane Caputi, "The Metaphors of Radiation: or, Why a Beautiful Woman is Like a Nuclear Power Plant," Women's Studies International Forum 14 (1991): 423-42; Paul N. Edwards, "The Army and the Microworld: Computers and the Politics of Gender Identity," Signs 16 (1990); Carol Cohn, "Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals," Signs 13 (1987): 687-718; Joseph O'Connell, "The Fine- Tuning of a Golden Ear: High-End Audio and the Evolutionary Model of Technology," Technology and Culture 33 (1992): 1-37. For an introduction to work in the field of information and communication studies, see Liesbet van Zoonen, "Feminist Theory and Information Technology," Media, Culture & Society 14 (1992): 9-30; and Maureen Ebben and Cheris Kramarae, "Women and Information Technologies: Creating a Cyberspace of Our Own," in Women, Information Technology, and Scholarship, ed. H. Jeanie Taylor, Cheris Kramarae, Maureen Ebben (Urbana, Ill., 1993).
111. Bryan C. Taylor, "Register of the Repressed: Women's Voice and the Body in the Nuclear Weapons Organization," Quarterly Journal of Speech 97 (1993): 267-85. Jane Caputi, "The Metaphors of Radiation: or, Why a Beautiful Woman is Like a Nuclear Power Plant," Women's Studies International Forum 14 (1991): 423-42; Paul N. Edwards, "The Army and the Microworld: Computers and the Politics of Gender Identity," Signs 16 (1990); Carol Cohn, "Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals," Signs 13 (1987): 687-718; Joseph O'Connell, "The Fine-Tuning of a Golden Ear: High-End Audio and the Evolutionary Model of Technology," Technology and Culture 33 (1992): 1-37. For an introduction to work in the field of information and communication studies, see Liesbet van Zoonen, "Feminist Theory and Information Technology," Media, Culture & Society 14 (1992): 9-30; and Maureen Ebben and Cheris Kramarae, "Women and Information Technologies: Creating a Cyberspace of Our Own," in Women, Information Technology, and Scholarship, ed. H. Jeanie Taylor, Cheris Kramarae, Maureen Ebben (Urbana, Ill., 1993).
112. Bryan C. Taylor, "Register of the Repressed: Women's Voice and the Body in the Nuclear Weapons Organization," Quarterly Journal of Speech 97 (1993): 267-85. Jane Caputi, "The Metaphors of Radiation: or, Why a Beautiful Woman is Like a Nuclear Power Plant," Women's Studies International Forum 14 (1991): 423-42; Paul N. Edwards, "The Army and the Microworld: Computers and the Politics of Gender Identity," Signs 16 (1990); Carol Cohn, "Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals," Signs 13 (1987): 687-718; Joseph O'Connell, "The Fine- Tuning of a Golden Ear: High-End Audio and the Evolutionary Model of Technology," Technology and Culture 33 (1992): 1-37. For an introduction to work in the field of information and communication studies, see Liesbet van Zoonen, "Feminist Theory and Information Technology," Media, Culture & Society 14 (1992): 9-30; and Maureen Ebben and Cheris Kramarae, "Women and Information Technologies: Creating a Cyberspace of Our Own," in Women, Information Technology, and Scholarship, ed. H. Jeanie Taylor, Cheris Kramarae, Maureen Ebben (Urbana, Ill., 1993).
113. Bryan C. Taylor, "Register of the Repressed: Women's Voice and the Body in the Nuclear Weapons Organization," Quarterly Journal of Speech 97 (1993): 267-85. Jane Caputi, "The Metaphors of Radiation: or, Why a Beautiful Woman is Like a Nuclear Power Plant," Women's Studies International Forum 14 (1991): 423-42; Paul N. Edwards, "The Army and the Microworld: Computers and the Politics of Gender Identity," Signs 16 (1990); Carol Cohn, "Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals," Signs 13 (1987): 687-718; Joseph O'Connell, "The Fine- Tuning of a Golden Ear: High-End Audio and the Evolutionary Model of Technology," Technology and Culture 33 (1992): 1-37. For an introduction to work in the field of information and communication studies, see Liesbet van Zoonen, "Feminist Theory and Information Technology," Media, Culture & Society 14 (1992): 9-30; and Maureen Ebben and Cheris Kramarae, "Women and Information Technologies: Creating a Cyberspace of Our Own," in Women, Information Technology, and Scholarship, ed. H. Jeanie Taylor, Cheris Kramarae, Maureen Ebben (Urbana, Ill., 1993).
114. Joseph J. Corn, "Making Flying 'Thinkable,'" chap. 4 in The Winged Gospel: America's Romance with Aviation, 1900-1950 (Oxford, 1983); Virginia Scharff, Taking the Wheel: Women and the Coming of the Motor Age (New York, 1991; reprint, Albuquerque, N.M., 1992).
115. Joseph J. Corn, "Making Flying 'Thinkable,'" chap. 4 in The Winged Gospel: America's Romance with Aviation, 1900-1950 (Oxford, 1983); Virginia Scharff, Taking the Wheel: Women and the Coming of the Motor Age (New York, 1991; reprint, Albuquerque, N.M., 1992).
116. Wiebe Bijker and Trevor Pinch, "The Social Construction of Artifacts," in Bijker, Pinch, and Hughes, The Social Construction of Technology, pp. 17-50; Scharff, Taking the Wheel; Rudi Volti, "Why Internal Combustion?" American Heritage of Invention and Technology, Fall 1990, 42-47; Mark Schiffer, Charging the Wheel: Women and the Electric Car (Washington, D.C., 1995).
117. Wiebe Bijker and Trevor Pinch, "The Social Construction of Artifacts," in Bijker, Pinch, and Hughes, The Social Construction of Technology, pp. 17-50; Scharff, Taking the Wheel; Rudi Volti, "Why Internal Combustion?" American Heritage of Invention and Technology, Fall 1990, 42-47; Mark Schiffer, Charging the Wheel: Women and the Electric Car (Washington, D.C., 1995).
118. Wiebe Bijker and Trevor Pinch, "The Social Construction of Artifacts," in Bijker, Pinch, and Hughes, The Social Construction of Technology, pp. 17-50; Scharff, Taking the Wheel; Rudi Volti, "Why Internal Combustion?" American Heritage of Invention and Technology, Fall 1990, 42-47; Mark Schiffer, Charging the Wheel: Women and the Electric Car (Washington, D.C., 1995).
119. Wiebe Bijker and Trevor Pinch, "The Social Construction of Artifacts," in Bijker, Pinch, and Hughes, The Social Construction of Technology, pp. 17-50; Scharff, Taking the Wheel; Rudi Volti, "Why Internal Combustion?" American Heritage of Invention and Technology, Fall 1990, 42-47; Mark Schiffer, Charging the Wheel: Women and the Electric Car (Washington, D.C., 1995).
120. Cynthia Cockburn and Susan Ormrod, Gender and Technology in the Making (London, 1993). See also Lucille Alice Suchman, Plans and Situated Actions: The Problem of Human-Machine Communications (Cambridge and New York, 1987); and Danielle Chaubaud-Rychter's fine example, "Women Users in the Design Process of a Food Robot," in Bringing Technology Home: Gender and Technology in a Changing Europe, ed. Cynthia Cockburn and Ruza Fürst-Dilic (Buckingham, 1994).
121. Cynthia Cockburn and Susan Ormrod, Gender and Technology in the Making (London, 1993). See also Lucille Alice Suchman, Plans and Situated Actions: The Problem of Human-Machine Communications (Cambridge and New York, 1987); and Danielle Chaubaud-Rychter's fine example, "Women Users in the Design Process of a Food Robot," in Bringing Technology Home: Gender and Technology in a Changing Europe, ed. Cynthia Cockburn and Ruza Fürst-Dilic (Buckingham, 1994).
122. Cynthia Cockburn and Susan Ormrod, Gender and Technology in the Making (London, 1993). See also Lucille Alice Suchman, Plans and Situated Actions: The Problem of Human-Machine Communications (Cambridge and New York, 1987); and Danielle Chaubaud-Rychter's fine example, "Women Users in the Design Process of a Food Robot," in Bringing Technology Home: Gender and Technology in a Changing Europe, ed. Cynthia Cockburn and Ruza Fürst-Dilic (Buckingham, 1994).
123. The following examples should point the interested reader to the broad issues here: Rosalind Petchesky, "Foetal Images: the Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood and Medicine, ed. Michelle Stanworth (Cambridge, 1987) (other essays in this volume are also useful); Lynn Spigel, Make Room for T. V.: Television and the Family Ideal in Post-War America (Chicago, 1992); Susan Douglas, Where the Girls Are: Growing Up Female with the Mass Media (New York, 1994); Lisa Cartwright, Screening the Body: Tracing Medicine's Visual Culture (Minneapolis, Minn., 1995); Carole A. Stabile, Feminism and the Technological Fix (Manchester and New York, 1994) and "Shooting the Mother: Fetal Photography and the Politics of Disappearance," Camera Obscura 28 (1992): 178-205. The special issues on science and technology of this feminist film journal, vols. 28 and 29, deserve notice here. They were edited by Lisa Cartwright and Paula Treichler.
124. The following examples should point the interested reader to the broad issues here: Rosalind Petchesky, "Foetal Images: the Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood and Medicine, ed. Michelle Stanworth (Cambridge, 1987) (other essays in this volume are also useful); Lynn Spigel, Make Room for T. V.: Television and the Family Ideal in Post-War America (Chicago, 1992); Susan Douglas, Where the Girls Are: Growing Up Female with the Mass Media (New York, 1994); Lisa Cartwright, Screening the Body: Tracing Medicine's Visual Culture (Minneapolis, Minn., 1995); Carole A. Stabile, Feminism and the Technological Fix (Manchester and New York, 1994) and "Shooting the Mother: Fetal Photography and the Politics of Disappearance," Camera Obscura 28 (1992): 178-205. The special issues on science and technology of this feminist film journal, vols. 28 and 29, deserve notice here. They were edited by Lisa Cartwright and Paula Treichler.
125. The following examples should point the interested reader to the broad issues here: Rosalind Petchesky, "Foetal Images: the Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood and Medicine, ed. Michelle Stanworth (Cambridge, 1987) (other essays in this volume are also useful); Lynn Spigel, Make Room for T. V.: Television and the Family Ideal in Post-War America (Chicago, 1992); Susan Douglas, Where the Girls Are: Growing Up Female with the Mass Media (New York, 1994); Lisa Cartwright, Screening the Body: Tracing Medicine's Visual Culture (Minneapolis, Minn., 1995); Carole A. Stabile, Feminism and the Technological Fix (Manchester and New York, 1994) and "Shooting the Mother: Fetal Photography and the Politics of Disappearance," Camera Obscura 28 (1992): 178-205. The special issues on science and technology of this feminist film journal, vols. 28 and 29, deserve notice here. They were edited by Lisa Cartwright and Paula Treichler.
126. The following examples should point the interested reader to the broad issues here: Rosalind Petchesky, "Foetal Images: the Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood and Medicine, ed. Michelle Stanworth (Cambridge, 1987) (other essays in this volume are also useful); Lynn Spigel, Make Room for T. V.: Television and the Family Ideal in Post-War America (Chicago, 1992); Susan Douglas, Where the Girls Are: Growing Up Female with the Mass Media (New York, 1994); Lisa Cartwright, Screening the Body: Tracing Medicine's Visual Culture (Minneapolis, Minn., 1995); Carole A. Stabile, Feminism and the Technological Fix (Manchester and New York, 1994) and "Shooting the Mother: Fetal Photography and the Politics of Disappearance," Camera Obscura 28 (1992): 178-205. The special issues on science and technology of this feminist film journal, vols. 28 and 29, deserve notice here. They were edited by Lisa Cartwright and Paula Treichler.
127. The following examples should point the interested reader to the broad issues here: Rosalind Petchesky, "Foetal Images: the Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood and Medicine, ed. Michelle Stanworth (Cambridge, 1987) (other essays in this volume are also useful); Lynn Spigel, Make Room for T. V.: Television and the Family Ideal in Post-War America (Chicago, 1992); Susan Douglas, Where the Girls Are: Growing Up Female with the Mass Media (New York, 1994); Lisa Cartwright, Screening the Body: Tracing Medicine's Visual Culture (Minneapolis, Minn., 1995); Carole A. Stabile, Feminism and the Technological Fix (Manchester and New York, 1994) and "Shooting the Mother: Fetal Photography and the Politics of Disappearance," Camera Obscura 28 (1992): 178-205. The special issues on science and technology of this feminist film journal, vols. 28 and 29, deserve notice here. They were edited by Lisa Cartwright and Paula Treichler.
128. The following examples should point the interested reader to the broad issues here: Rosalind Petchesky, "Foetal Images: the Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood and Medicine, ed. Michelle Stanworth (Cambridge, 1987) (other essays in this volume are also useful); Lynn Spigel, Make Room for T. V.: Television and the Family Ideal in Post-War America (Chicago, 1992); Susan Douglas, Where the Girls Are: Growing Up Female with the Mass Media (New York, 1994); Lisa Cartwright, Screening the Body: Tracing Medicine's Visual Culture (Minneapolis, Minn., 1995); Carole A. Stabile, Feminism and the Technological Fix (Manchester and New York, 1994) and "Shooting the Mother: Fetal Photography and the Politics of Disappearance," Camera Obscura 28 (1992): 178-205. The special issues on science and technology of this feminist film journal, vols. 28 and 29, deserve notice here. They were edited by Lisa Cartwright and Paula Treichler.
129. Unfortunately, authors contributing to the special issue of T&C on biomedical and behavioral technologies had apparently not encountered this literature; Technology and Culture 34, no. 4 (1993).
130. The earliest and classic "boon" statement dates from 1970 when Shulamith Firestone argued, in The Dialectic of Sex: A Case for a Feminist Revolution (New York, 1970), that the new technologies would be liberating for women. Socialist-feminists were the first to question Firestone's optimistic view of reproductive technologies, arguing that such technologies instead represented male intrusion of and control over the female body. Hilary Rose and Jalna Hanmer opened the black box of technology in "Women's Liberation: Reproduction and the Technological Fix," in The Political Economy of Science: Ideology of/in the Natural Sciences, ed. Hilary Rose and Steven Rose (London, 1976). Rita Arditti, Renate Duelli Klein, and Shelley Minden, eds., Test- Tube Women: What Future for Motherhood? (London, 1984) includes the different trends in the discussion. Highly critical assessments include Gena Corea et al., Man- Made Women: How New Reproductive Technologies Affect Women (London, 1985; reprint, Bloomington, Ind., 1987) and Gena Corea, The Mother Machine: Reproductive Technologies from Artificial Insemination to Artifical Wombs (New York, 1985). The influential and critical movement FINNRAGE (Feminist International Resistance to Reproductive and Genetic Engineering) announced itself in Patricia Spallone and D. L. Steinberg, Made to Order: The Myth of Reproductive and Genetic Progress (Oxford, 1987). For a response against the view of women as passive victims of male control and technology, see Stanworth, Reproductive Technologies. See also Patricia Spallone, Beyond Conception: The New Politics of Reproduction (London, 1989) and Patricia H. Hynes, ed., Reconstructing Babylon: Essays on Women and Technology (Bloomington, Ind., 1991).
131. The earliest and classic "boon" statement dates from 1970 when Shulamith Firestone argued, in The Dialectic of Sex: A Case for a Feminist Revolution (New York, 1970), that the new technologies would be liberating for women. Socialist-feminists were the first to question Firestone's optimistic view of reproductive technologies, arguing that such technologies instead represented male intrusion of and control over the female body. Hilary Rose and Jalna Hanmer opened the black box of technology in "Women's Liberation: Reproduction and the Technological Fix," in The Political Economy of Science: Ideology of/in the Natural Sciences, ed. Hilary Rose and Steven Rose (London, 1976). Rita Arditti, Renate Duelli Klein, and Shelley Minden, eds., Test- Tube Women: What Future for Motherhood? (London, 1984) includes the different trends in the discussion. Highly critical assessments include Gena Corea et al., Man- Made Women: How New Reproductive Technologies Affect Women (London, 1985; reprint, Bloomington, Ind., 1987) and Gena Corea, The Mother Machine: Reproductive Technologies from Artificial Insemination to Artifical Wombs (New York, 1985). The influential and critical movement FINNRAGE (Feminist International Resistance to Reproductive and Genetic Engineering) announced itself in Patricia Spallone and D. L. Steinberg, Made to Order: The Myth of Reproductive and Genetic Progress (Oxford, 1987). For a response against the view of women as passive victims of male control and technology, see Stanworth, Reproductive Technologies. See also Patricia Spallone, Beyond Conception: The New Politics of Reproduction (London, 1989) and Patricia H. Hynes, ed., Reconstructing Babylon: Essays on Women and Technology (Bloomington, Ind., 1991).
132. The earliest and classic "boon" statement dates from 1970 when Shulamith Firestone argued, in The Dialectic of Sex: A Case for a Feminist Revolution (New York, 1970), that the new technologies would be liberating for women. Socialist-feminists were the first to question Firestone's optimistic view of reproductive technologies, arguing that such technologies instead represented male intrusion of and control over the female body. Hilary Rose and Jalna Hanmer opened the black box of technology in "Women's Liberation: Reproduction and the Technological Fix," in The Political Economy of Science: Ideology of/in the Natural Sciences, ed. Hilary Rose and Steven Rose (London, 1976). Rita Arditti, Renate Duelli Klein, and Shelley Minden, eds., Test-Tube Women: What Future for Motherhood? (London, 1984) includes the different trends in the discussion. Highly critical assessments include Gena Corea et al., Man- Made Women: How New Reproductive Technologies Affect Women (London, 1985; reprint, Bloomington, Ind., 1987) and Gena Corea, The Mother Machine: Reproductive Technologies from Artificial Insemination to Artifical Wombs (New York, 1985). The influential and critical movement FINNRAGE (Feminist International Resistance to Reproductive and Genetic Engineering) announced itself in Patricia Spallone and D. L. Steinberg, Made to Order: The Myth of Reproductive and Genetic Progress (Oxford, 1987). For a response against the view of women as passive victims of male control and technology, see Stanworth, Reproductive Technologies. See also Patricia Spallone, Beyond Conception: The New Politics of Reproduction (London, 1989) and Patricia H. Hynes, ed., Reconstructing Babylon: Essays on Women and Technology (Bloomington, Ind., 1991).
133. The earliest and classic "boon" statement dates from 1970 when Shulamith Firestone argued, in The Dialectic of Sex: A Case for a Feminist Revolution (New York, 1970), that the new technologies would be liberating for women. Socialist-feminists were the first to question Firestone's optimistic view of reproductive technologies, arguing that such technologies instead represented male intrusion of and control over the female body. Hilary Rose and Jalna Hanmer opened the black box of technology in "Women's Liberation: Reproduction and the Technological Fix," in The Political Economy of Science: Ideology of/in the Natural Sciences, ed. Hilary Rose and Steven Rose (London, 1976). Rita Arditti, Renate Duelli Klein, and Shelley Minden, eds., Test- Tube Women: What Future for Motherhood? (London, 1984) includes the different trends in the discussion. Highly critical assessments include Gena Corea et al., Man-Made Women: How New Reproductive Technologies Affect Women (London, 1985; reprint, Bloomington, Ind., 1987) and Gena Corea, The Mother Machine: Reproductive Technologies from Artificial Insemination to Artifical Wombs (New York, 1985). The influential and critical movement FINNRAGE (Feminist International Resistance to Reproductive and Genetic Engineering) announced itself in Patricia Spallone and D. L. Steinberg, Made to Order: The Myth of Reproductive and Genetic Progress (Oxford, 1987). For a response against the view of women as passive victims of male control and technology, see Stanworth, Reproductive Technologies. See also Patricia Spallone, Beyond Conception: The New Politics of Reproduction (London, 1989) and Patricia H. Hynes, ed., Reconstructing Babylon: Essays on Women and Technology (Bloomington, Ind., 1991).
134. The earliest and classic "boon" statement dates from 1970 when Shulamith Firestone argued, in The Dialectic of Sex: A Case for a Feminist Revolution (New York, 1970), that the new technologies would be liberating for women. Socialist-feminists were the first to question Firestone's optimistic view of reproductive technologies, arguing that such technologies instead represented male intrusion of and control over the female body. Hilary Rose and Jalna Hanmer opened the black box of technology in "Women's Liberation: Reproduction and the Technological Fix," in The Political Economy of Science: Ideology of/in the Natural Sciences, ed. Hilary Rose and Steven Rose (London, 1976). Rita Arditti, Renate Duelli Klein, and Shelley Minden, eds., Test- Tube Women: What Future for Motherhood? (London, 1984) includes the different trends in the discussion. Highly critical assessments include Gena Corea et al., Man- Made Women: How New Reproductive Technologies Affect Women (London, 1985; reprint, Bloomington, Ind., 1987) and Gena Corea, The Mother Machine: Reproductive Technologies from Artificial Insemination to Artifical Wombs (New York, 1985). The influential and critical movement FINNRAGE (Feminist International Resistance to Reproductive and Genetic Engineering) announced itself in Patricia Spallone and D. L. Steinberg, Made to Order: The Myth of Reproductive and Genetic Progress (Oxford, 1987). For a response against the view of women as passive victims of male control and technology, see Stanworth, Reproductive Technologies. See also Patricia Spallone, Beyond Conception: The New Politics of Reproduction (London, 1989) and Patricia H. Hynes, ed., Reconstructing Babylon: Essays on Women and Technology (Bloomington, Ind., 1991).
135. The earliest and classic "boon" statement dates from 1970 when Shulamith Firestone argued, in The Dialectic of Sex: A Case for a Feminist Revolution (New York, 1970), that the new technologies would be liberating for women. Socialist-feminists were the first to question Firestone's optimistic view of reproductive technologies, arguing that such technologies instead represented male intrusion of and control over the female body. Hilary Rose and Jalna Hanmer opened the black box of technology in "Women's Liberation: Reproduction and the Technological Fix," in The Political Economy of Science: Ideology of/in the Natural Sciences, ed. Hilary Rose and Steven Rose (London, 1976). Rita Arditti, Renate Duelli Klein, and Shelley Minden, eds., Test- Tube Women: What Future for Motherhood? (London, 1984) includes the different trends in the discussion. Highly critical assessments include Gena Corea et al., Man- Made Women: How New Reproductive Technologies Affect Women (London, 1985; reprint, Bloomington, Ind., 1987) and Gena Corea, The Mother Machine: Reproductive Technologies from Artificial Insemination to Artifical Wombs (New York, 1985). The influential and critical movement FINNRAGE (Feminist International Resistance to Reproductive and Genetic Engineering) announced itself in Patricia Spallone and D. L. Steinberg, Made to Order: The Myth of Reproductive and Genetic Progress (Oxford, 1987). For a response against the view of women as passive victims of male control and technology, see Stanworth, Reproductive Technologies. See also Patricia Spallone, Beyond Conception: The New Politics of Reproduction (London, 1989) and Patricia H. Hynes, ed., Reconstructing Babylon: Essays on Women and Technology (Bloomington, Ind., 1991).
136. The earliest and classic "boon" statement dates from 1970 when Shulamith Firestone argued, in The Dialectic of Sex: A Case for a Feminist Revolution (New York, 1970), that the new technologies would be liberating for women. Socialist-feminists were the first to question Firestone's optimistic view of reproductive technologies, arguing that such technologies instead represented male intrusion of and control over the female body. Hilary Rose and Jalna Hanmer opened the black box of technology in "Women's Liberation: Reproduction and the Technological Fix," in The Political Economy of Science: Ideology of/in the Natural Sciences, ed. Hilary Rose and Steven Rose (London, 1976). Rita Arditti, Renate Duelli Klein, and Shelley Minden, eds., Test- Tube Women: What Future for Motherhood? (London, 1984) includes the different trends in the discussion. Highly critical assessments include Gena Corea et al., Man- Made Women: How New Reproductive Technologies Affect Women (London, 1985; reprint, Bloomington, Ind., 1987) and Gena Corea, The Mother Machine: Reproductive Technologies from Artificial Insemination to Artifical Wombs (New York, 1985). The influential and critical movement FINNRAGE (Feminist International Resistance to Reproductive and Genetic Engineering) announced itself in Patricia Spallone and D. L. Steinberg, Made to Order: The Myth of Reproductive and Genetic Progress (Oxford, 1987). For a response against the view of women as passive victims of male control and technology, see Stanworth, Reproductive Technologies. See also Patricia Spallone, Beyond Conception: The New Politics of Reproduction (London, 1989) and Patricia H. Hynes, ed., Reconstructing Babylon: Essays on Women and Technology (Bloomington, Ind., 1991).
137. The earliest and classic "boon" statement dates from 1970 when Shulamith Firestone argued, in The Dialectic of Sex: A Case for a Feminist Revolution (New York, 1970), that the new technologies would be liberating for women. Socialist-feminists were the first to question Firestone's optimistic view of reproductive technologies, arguing that such technologies instead represented male intrusion of and control over the female body. Hilary Rose and Jalna Hanmer opened the black box of technology in "Women's Liberation: Reproduction and the Technological Fix," in The Political Economy of Science: Ideology of/in the Natural Sciences, ed. Hilary Rose and Steven Rose (London, 1976). Rita Arditti, Renate Duelli Klein, and Shelley Minden, eds., Test- Tube Women: What Future for Motherhood? (London, 1984) includes the different trends in the discussion. Highly critical assessments include Gena Corea et al., Man- Made Women: How New Reproductive Technologies Affect Women (London, 1985; reprint, Bloomington, Ind., 1987) and Gena Corea, The Mother Machine: Reproductive Technologies from Artificial Insemination to Artifical Wombs (New York, 1985). The influential and critical movement FINNRAGE (Feminist International Resistance to Reproductive and Genetic Engineering) announced itself in Patricia Spallone and D. L. Steinberg, Made to Order: The Myth of Reproductive and Genetic Progress (Oxford, 1987). For a response against the view of women as passive victims of male control and technology, see Stanworth, Reproductive Technologies. See also Patricia Spallone, Beyond Conception: The New Politics of Reproduction (London, 1989) and Patricia H. Hynes, ed., Reconstructing Babylon: Essays on Women and Technology (Bloomington, Ind., 1991).
138. The earliest and classic "boon" statement dates from 1970 when Shulamith Firestone argued, in The Dialectic of Sex: A Case for a Feminist Revolution (New York, 1970), that the new technologies would be liberating for women. Socialist-feminists were the first to question Firestone's optimistic view of reproductive technologies, arguing that such technologies instead represented male intrusion of and control over the female body. Hilary Rose and Jalna Hanmer opened the black box of technology in "Women's Liberation: Reproduction and the Technological Fix," in The Political Economy of Science: Ideology of/in the Natural Sciences, ed. Hilary Rose and Steven Rose (London, 1976). Rita Arditti, Renate Duelli Klein, and Shelley Minden, eds., Test- Tube Women: What Future for Motherhood? (London, 1984) includes the different trends in the discussion. Highly critical assessments include Gena Corea et al., Man- Made Women: How New Reproductive Technologies Affect Women (London, 1985; reprint, Bloomington, Ind., 1987) and Gena Corea, The Mother Machine: Reproductive Technologies from Artificial Insemination to Artifical Wombs (New York, 1985). The influential and critical movement FINNRAGE (Feminist International Resistance to Reproductive and Genetic Engineering) announced itself in Patricia Spallone and D. L. Steinberg, Made to Order: The Myth of Reproductive and Genetic Progress (Oxford, 1987). For a response against the view of women as passive victims of male control and technology, see Stanworth, Reproductive Technologies. See also Patricia Spallone, Beyond Conception: The New Politics of Reproduction (London, 1989) and Patricia H. Hynes, ed., Reconstructing Babylon: Essays on Women and Technology (Bloomington, Ind., 1991).
139. Barbara Katz Rothman, Recreating Motherhood: Ideology and Technology in a Patriarchal Society (New York, 1989); Rosalind Petchesky, "Foetal Images: the Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Stanworth, Reproductive Technologies; Jennifer L. Stone, "Contextualizing Biogenetic and Reproductive Technologies," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (1991): 309-32; Laura R. Woliver, "The Influence of Technology and the Politics of Motherhood: An Overview of the United States," Women's Studies International Forum 14 (1991): 479-90. Maureen McNeil, Ian Varcoe, and Steven Yearley, eds., The New Reproductive Technologies (London, 1990); José van Dijck, Manufacturing Babies and Public Consent (New York, 1995). On the Dutch debate, see Marta Kirejczyk, Met technologie gezegend? Gender en de omstreden invoering van in vitro fertilisatie in de Nederlandse gezondheidszorg (Utrecht, the Netherlands, 1996); Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archaeology of Sex Hormones (London and New York, 1994); Marianne van den Wijngaard, Reinventing the Sexes: Feminism and Biomedical Construction of Feminity and Masculinity, 1959-1985 (Amsterdam, 1991).
140. Barbara Katz Rothman, Recreating Motherhood: Ideology and Technology in a Patriarchal Society (New York, 1989); Rosalind Petchesky, "Foetal Images: the Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Stanworth, Reproductive Technologies; Jennifer L. Stone, "Contextualizing Biogenetic and Reproductive Technologies," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (1991): 309-32; Laura R. Woliver, "The Influence of Technology and the Politics of Motherhood: An Overview of the United States," Women's Studies International Forum 14 (1991): 479-90. Maureen McNeil, Ian Varcoe, and Steven Yearley, eds., The New Reproductive Technologies (London, 1990); José van Dijck, Manufacturing Babies and Public Consent (New York, 1995). On the Dutch debate, see Marta Kirejczyk, Met technologie gezegend? Gender en de omstreden invoering van in vitro fertilisatie in de Nederlandse gezondheidszorg (Utrecht, the Netherlands, 1996); Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archaeology of Sex Hormones (London and New York, 1994); Marianne van den Wijngaard, Reinventing the Sexes: Feminism and Biomedical Construction of Feminity and Masculinity, 1959-1985 (Amsterdam, 1991).
141. Barbara Katz Rothman, Recreating Motherhood: Ideology and Technology in a Patriarchal Society (New York, 1989); Rosalind Petchesky, "Foetal Images: the Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Stanworth, Reproductive Technologies; Jennifer L. Stone, "Contextualizing Biogenetic and Reproductive Technologies," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (1991): 309-32; Laura R. Woliver, "The Influence of Technology and the Politics of Motherhood: An Overview of the United States," Women's Studies International Forum 14 (1991): 479-90. Maureen McNeil, Ian Varcoe, and Steven Yearley, eds., The New Reproductive Technologies (London, 1990); José van Dijck, Manufacturing Babies and Public Consent (New York, 1995). On the Dutch debate, see Marta Kirejczyk, Met technologie gezegend? Gender en de omstreden invoering van in vitro fertilisatie in de Nederlandse gezondheidszorg (Utrecht, the Netherlands, 1996); Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archaeology of Sex Hormones (London and New York, 1994); Marianne van den Wijngaard, Reinventing the Sexes: Feminism and Biomedical Construction of Feminity and Masculinity, 1959-1985 (Amsterdam, 1991).
142. Barbara Katz Rothman, Recreating Motherhood: Ideology and Technology in a Patriarchal Society (New York, 1989); Rosalind Petchesky, "Foetal Images: the Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Stanworth, Reproductive Technologies; Jennifer L. Stone, "Contextualizing Biogenetic and Reproductive Technologies," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (1991): 309-32; Laura R. Woliver, "The Influence of Technology and the Politics of Motherhood: An Overview of the United States," Women's Studies International Forum 14 (1991): 479-90. Maureen McNeil, Ian Varcoe, and Steven Yearley, eds., The New Reproductive Technologies (London, 1990); José van Dijck, Manufacturing Babies and Public Consent (New York, 1995). On the Dutch debate, see Marta Kirejczyk, Met technologie gezegend? Gender en de omstreden invoering van in vitro fertilisatie in de Nederlandse gezondheidszorg (Utrecht, the Netherlands, 1996); Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archaeology of Sex Hormones (London and New York, 1994); Marianne van den Wijngaard, Reinventing the Sexes: Feminism and Biomedical Construction of Feminity and Masculinity, 1959-1985 (Amsterdam, 1991).
143. Barbara Katz Rothman, Recreating Motherhood: Ideology and Technology in a Patriarchal Society (New York, 1989); Rosalind Petchesky, "Foetal Images: the Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Stanworth, Reproductive Technologies; Jennifer L. Stone, "Contextualizing Biogenetic and Reproductive Technologies," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (1991): 309-32; Laura R. Woliver, "The Influence of Technology and the Politics of Motherhood: An Overview of the United States," Women's Studies International Forum 14 (1991): 479-90. Maureen McNeil, Ian Varcoe, and Steven Yearley, eds., The New Reproductive Technologies (London, 1990); José van Dijck, Manufacturing Babies and Public Consent (New York, 1995). On the Dutch debate, see Marta Kirejczyk, Met technologie gezegend? Gender en de omstreden invoering van in vitro fertilisatie in de Nederlandse gezondheidszorg (Utrecht, the Netherlands, 1996); Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archaeology of Sex Hormones (London and New York, 1994); Marianne van den Wijngaard, Reinventing the Sexes: Feminism and Biomedical Construction of Feminity and Masculinity, 1959-1985 (Amsterdam, 1991).
144. Barbara Katz Rothman, Recreating Motherhood: Ideology and Technology in a Patriarchal Society (New York, 1989); Rosalind Petchesky, "Foetal Images: the Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Stanworth, Reproductive Technologies; Jennifer L. Stone, "Contextualizing Biogenetic and Reproductive Technologies," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (1991): 309-32; Laura R. Woliver, "The Influence of Technology and the Politics of Motherhood: An Overview of the United States," Women's Studies International Forum 14 (1991): 479-90. Maureen McNeil, Ian Varcoe, and Steven Yearley, eds., The New Reproductive Technologies (London, 1990); José van Dijck, Manufacturing Babies and Public Consent (New York, 1995). On the Dutch debate, see Marta Kirejczyk, Met technologie gezegend? Gender en de omstreden invoering van in vitro fertilisatie in de Nederlandse gezondheidszorg (Utrecht, the Netherlands, 1996); Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archaeology of Sex Hormones (London and New York, 1994); Marianne van den Wijngaard, Reinventing the Sexes: Feminism and Biomedical Construction of Feminity and Masculinity, 1959-1985 (Amsterdam, 1991).
145. Barbara Katz Rothman, Recreating Motherhood: Ideology and Technology in a Patriarchal Society (New York, 1989); Rosalind Petchesky, "Foetal Images: the Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Stanworth, Reproductive Technologies; Jennifer L. Stone, "Contextualizing Biogenetic and Reproductive Technologies," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (1991): 309-32; Laura R. Woliver, "The Influence of Technology and the Politics of Motherhood: An Overview of the United States," Women's Studies International Forum 14 (1991): 479-90. Maureen McNeil, Ian Varcoe, and Steven Yearley, eds., The New Reproductive Technologies (London, 1990); José van Dijck, Manufacturing Babies and Public Consent (New York, 1995). On the Dutch debate, see Marta Kirejczyk, Met technologie gezegend? Gender en de omstreden invoering van in vitro fertilisatie in de Nederlandse gezondheidszorg (Utrecht, the Netherlands, 1996); Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archaeology of Sex Hormones (London and New York, 1994); Marianne van den Wijngaard, Reinventing the Sexes: Feminism and Biomedical Construction of Feminity and Masculinity, 1959-1985 (Amsterdam, 1991).
146. Barbara Katz Rothman, Recreating Motherhood: Ideology and Technology in a Patriarchal Society (New York, 1989); Rosalind Petchesky, "Foetal Images: the Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Stanworth, Reproductive Technologies; Jennifer L. Stone, "Contextualizing Biogenetic and Reproductive Technologies," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (1991): 309-32; Laura R. Woliver, "The Influence of Technology and the Politics of Motherhood: An Overview of the United States," Women's Studies International Forum 14 (1991): 479-90. Maureen McNeil, Ian Varcoe, and Steven Yearley, eds., The New Reproductive Technologies (London, 1990); José van Dijck, Manufacturing Babies and Public Consent (New York, 1995). On the Dutch debate, see Marta Kirejczyk, Met technologie gezegend? Gender en de omstreden invoering van in vitro fertilisatie in de Nederlandse gezondheidszorg (Utrecht, the Netherlands, 1996); Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archaeology of Sex Hormones (London and New York, 1994); Marianne van den Wijngaard, Reinventing the Sexes: Feminism and Biomedical Construction of Feminity and Masculinity, 1959-1985 (Amsterdam, 1991).
147. Barbara Katz Rothman, Recreating Motherhood: Ideology and Technology in a Patriarchal Society (New York, 1989); Rosalind Petchesky, "Foetal Images: the Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Stanworth, Reproductive Technologies; Jennifer L. Stone, "Contextualizing Biogenetic and Reproductive Technologies," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (1991): 309-32; Laura R. Woliver, "The Influence of Technology and the Politics of Motherhood: An Overview of the United States," Women's Studies International Forum 14 (1991): 479-90. Maureen McNeil, Ian Varcoe, and Steven Yearley, eds., The New Reproductive Technologies (London, 1990); José van Dijck, Manufacturing Babies and Public Consent (New York, 1995). On the Dutch debate, see Marta Kirejczyk, Met technologie gezegend? Gender en de omstreden invoering van in vitro fertilisatie in de Nederlandse gezondheidszorg (Utrecht, the Netherlands, 1996); Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archaeology of Sex Hormones (London and New York, 1994); Marianne van den Wijngaard, Reinventing the Sexes: Feminism and Biomedical Construction of Feminity and Masculinity, 1959-1985 (Amsterdam, 1991).
148. For work published before 1982. see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology" (n. 4 above). For examples of more recent work see Rima D. Apple, ed., Women, Health, and Medicine in Amenta : A Historical Handbook (New Brunswick, N.J., 1992); Margeret J. Sandelowski, "Failures of Volition: Female Agency and Infertility in Historical Perspective," Signs 15 (1990): 475-99; Susan E. Klepp "Lost, Hidden, Obstructed, and Repressed: Contraceptive and Abortive Technology in the Early Delaware Valley," in Judith McGaw, ed., Early American Technology: Making and Doing Things from the Colonial Era to 1850 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1994); Janet Farell Brodie, Abortion and Contraception in Nineteenth-Century America (Ithaca, N.Y., 1994); Laura Klosterman Kidd, "Menstrual Technology in the United States, 1854-1921," (Ph.D. diss., Iowa State University, 1994); Rachel Maines, "The Vibrator, the Dildo, and the Speculum: Androcentric Perceptions of Nineteenth-Century Technologies" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Sociely for the History of Technology, London, August 1996).
149. For work published before 1982. see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology" (n. 4 above). For examples of more recent work see Rima D. Apple, ed., Women, Health, and Medicine in Amenta : A Historical Handbook (New Brunswick, N.J., 1992); Margeret J. Sandelowski, "Failures of Volition: Female Agency and Infertility in Historical Perspective," Signs 15 (1990): 475-99; Susan E. Klepp "Lost, Hidden, Obstructed, and Repressed: Contraceptive and Abortive Technology in the Early Delaware Valley," in Judith McGaw, ed., Early American Technology: Making and Doing Things from the Colonial Era to 1850 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1994); Janet Farell Brodie, Abortion and Contraception in Nineteenth-Century America (Ithaca, N.Y., 1994); Laura Klosterman Kidd, "Menstrual Technology in the United States, 1854-1921," (Ph.D. diss., Iowa State University, 1994); Rachel Maines, "The Vibrator, the Dildo, and the Speculum: Androcentric Perceptions of Nineteenth-Century Technologies" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Sociely for the History of Technology, London, August 1996).
150. For work published before 1982. see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology" (n. 4 above). For examples of more recent work see Rima D. Apple, ed., Women, Health, and Medicine in Amenta : A Historical Handbook (New Brunswick, N.J., 1992); Margeret J. Sandelowski, "Failures of Volition: Female Agency and Infertility in Historical Perspective," Signs 15 (1990): 475-99; Susan E. Klepp "Lost, Hidden, Obstructed, and Repressed: Contraceptive and Abortive Technology in the Early Delaware Valley," in Judith McGaw, ed., Early American Technology: Making and Doing Things from the Colonial Era to 1850 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1994); Janet Farell Brodie, Abortion and Contraception in Nineteenth-Century America (Ithaca, N.Y., 1994); Laura Klosterman Kidd, "Menstrual Technology in the United States, 1854-1921," (Ph.D. diss., Iowa State University, 1994); Rachel Maines, "The Vibrator, the Dildo, and the Speculum: Androcentric Perceptions of Nineteenth-Century Technologies" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Sociely for the History of Technology, London, August 1996).
151. For work published before 1982. see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology" (n. 4 above). For examples of more recent work see Rima D. Apple, ed., Women, Health, and Medicine in Amenta : A Historical Handbook (New Brunswick, N.J., 1992); Margeret J. Sandelowski, "Failures of Volition: Female Agency and Infertility in Historical Perspective," Signs 15 (1990): 475-99; Susan E. Klepp "Lost, Hidden, Obstructed, and Repressed: Contraceptive and Abortive Technology in the Early Delaware Valley," in Judith McGaw, ed., Early American Technology: Making and Doing Things from the Colonial Era to 1850 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1994); Janet Farell Brodie, Abortion and Contraception in Nineteenth-Century America (Ithaca, N.Y., 1994); Laura Klosterman Kidd, "Menstrual Technology in the United States, 1854-1921," (Ph.D. diss., Iowa State University, 1994); Rachel Maines, "The Vibrator, the Dildo, and the Speculum: Androcentric Perceptions of Nineteenth-Century Technologies" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Sociely for the History of Technology, London, August 1996).
152. For work published before 1982. see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology" (n. 4 above). For examples of more recent work see Rima D. Apple, ed., Women, Health, and Medicine in Amenta : A Historical Handbook (New Brunswick, N.J., 1992); Margeret J. Sandelowski, "Failures of Volition: Female Agency and Infertility in Historical Perspective," Signs 15 (1990): 475-99; Susan E. Klepp "Lost, Hidden, Obstructed, and Repressed: Contraceptive and Abortive Technology in the Early Delaware Valley," in Judith McGaw, ed., Early American Technology: Making and Doing Things from the Colonial Era to 1850 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1994); Janet Farell Brodie, Abortion and Contraception in Nineteenth-Century America (Ithaca, N.Y., 1994); Laura Klosterman Kidd, "Menstrual Technology in the United States, 1854-1921," (Ph.D. diss., Iowa State University, 1994); Rachel Maines, "The Vibrator, the Dildo, and the Speculum: Androcentric Perceptions of Nineteenth-Century Technologies" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Sociely for the History of Technology, London, August 1996).
153. For work published before 1982. see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology" (n. 4 above). For examples of more recent work see Rima D. Apple, ed., Women, Health, and Medicine in Amenta : A Historical Handbook (New Brunswick, N.J., 1992); Margeret J. Sandelowski, "Failures of Volition: Female Agency and Infertility in Historical Perspective," Signs 15 (1990): 475-99; Susan E. Klepp "Lost, Hidden, Obstructed, and Repressed: Contraceptive and Abortive Technology in the Early Delaware Valley," in Judith McGaw, ed., Early American Technology: Making and Doing Things from the Colonial Era to 1850 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1994); Janet Farell Brodie, Abortion and Contraception in Nineteenth-Century America (Ithaca, N.Y., 1994); Laura Klosterman Kidd, "Menstrual Technology in the United States, 1854-1921," (Ph.D. diss., Iowa State University, 1994); Rachel Maines, "The Vibrator, the Dildo, and the Speculum: Androcentric Perceptions of Nineteenth-Century Technologies" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Sociely for the History of Technology, London, August 1996).
154. For work published before 1982. see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology" (n. 4 above). For examples of more recent work see Rima D. Apple, ed., Women, Health, and Medicine in Amenta : A Historical Handbook (New Brunswick, N.J., 1992); Margeret J. Sandelowski, "Failures of Volition: Female Agency and Infertility in Historical Perspective," Signs 15 (1990): 475-99; Susan E. Klepp "Lost, Hidden, Obstructed, and Repressed: Contraceptive and Abortive Technology in the Early Delaware Valley," in Judith McGaw, ed., Early American Technology: Making and Doing Things from the Colonial Era to 1850 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1994); Janet Farell Brodie, Abortion and Contraception in Nineteenth-Century America (Ithaca, N.Y., 1994); Laura Klosterman Kidd, "Menstrual Technology in the United States, 1854-1921," (Ph.D. diss., Iowa State University, 1994); Rachel Maines, "The Vibrator, the Dildo, and the Speculum: Androcentric Perceptions of Nineteenth-Century Technologies" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Sociely for the History of Technology, London, August 1996).
155. See Kathy Peiss, "Making Faces: The Cosmetics Industry and the Cultural Construction of Gender, 1890-1930," Genders 7 (1990): 143-69; Claudia Kidwell and Valerie Steele, Men and Women: Dressing the Part (Washington, D.C., 1989); Anne Hollander, Sex and Suits (New York, 1994); Valerie Steele, Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age (New York, 1985). See also McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology."
156. See Kathy Peiss, "Making Faces: The Cosmetics Industry and the Cultural Construction of Gender, 1890-1930," Genders 7 (1990): 143-69; Claudia Kidwell and Valerie Steele, Men and Women: Dressing the Part (Washington, D.C., 1989); Anne Hollander, Sex and Suits (New York, 1994); Valerie Steele, Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age (New York, 1985). See also McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology."
157. See Kathy Peiss, "Making Faces: The Cosmetics Industry and the Cultural Construction of Gender, 1890-1930," Genders 7 (1990): 143-69; Claudia Kidwell and Valerie Steele, Men and Women: Dressing the Part (Washington, D.C., 1989); Anne Hollander, Sex and Suits (New York, 1994); Valerie Steele, Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age (New York, 1985). See also McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology."
158. See Kathy Peiss, "Making Faces: The Cosmetics Industry and the Cultural Construction of Gender, 1890-1930," Genders 7 (1990): 143-69; Claudia Kidwell and Valerie Steele, Men and Women: Dressing the Part (Washington, D.C., 1989); Anne Hollander, Sex and Suits (New York, 1994); Valerie Steele, Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age (New York, 1985). See also McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology."
159. See Kathy Peiss, "Making Faces: The Cosmetics Industry and the Cultural Construction of Gender, 1890-1930," Genders 7 (1990): 143-69; Claudia Kidwell and Valerie Steele, Men and Women: Dressing the Part (Washington, D.C., 1989); Anne Hollander, Sex and Suits (New York, 1994); Valerie Steele, Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age (New York, 1985). See also McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology."
160. For a sample of this emerging literature, see Kathy Davis, Reshaping the Female Body: The Dilemma of Cosmetic Surgery (New York, 1995); Bernice L. Hausman, Changing Sex: Transexualism, Technology and the Idea of Gender (Durham,
161. For a sample of this emerging literature, see Kathy Davis, Reshaping the Female Body: The Dilemma of Cosmetic Surgery (New York, 1995); Bernice L. Hausman, Changing Sex: Transexualism, Technology and the Idea of Gender (Durham, N.C., 1995); Ann Balsamo, Technologies of the Gendered Body: Reading Cyborg Women (Durham, N.C., 1996). See also Allucquere Stone, The War of Desire and Technology at the Close of the Mechanical Age (Cambridge, 1995).
162. For a sample of this emerging literature, see Kathy Davis, Reshaping the Female Body: The Dilemma of Cosmetic Surgery (New York, 1995); Bernice L. Hausman, Changing Sex: Transexualism, Technology and the Idea of Gender (Durham, N.C., 1995); Ann Balsamo, Technologies of the Gendered Body: Reading Cyborg Women (Durham, N.C., 1996). See also Allucquere Stone, The War of Desire and Technology at the Close of the Mechanical Age (Cambridge, 1995).
163. For a sample of this emerging literature, see Kathy Davis, Reshaping the Female Body: The Dilemma of Cosmetic Surgery (New York, 1995); Bernice L. Hausman, Changing Sex: Transexualism, Technology and the Idea of Gender (Durham, N.C., 1995); Ann Balsamo, Technologies of the Gendered Body: Reading Cyborg Women (Durham, N.C., 1996). See also Allucquere Stone, The War of Desire and Technology at the Close of the Mechanical Age (Cambridge, 1995).
164. These discussions of blurring boundaries between what is "human" and what is "machine" owe much to the work of Donna Haraway (n. 15 above). For a recent statement see Haraway, "The Promises of Monsters," in Cultural Studies, ed. Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson, and Paula A. Treichler (New York, 1992). For further discussion see also Paul N. Edwards, "Cyberpunks in Cyberspace: The Politics of Subjectivity in the Computer Age," in The Cultures of Computing, ed. Susan Leigh Star (London, 1995) and The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, Mass., 1996); and Ruth Oldenziel, "Of Old and New Cyborgs: Feminist Narratives of Technology," Letterature d'America (1996): 95-111.
165. These discussions of blurring boundaries between what is "human" and what is "machine" owe much to the work of Donna Haraway (n. 15 above). For a recent statement see Haraway, "The Promises of Monsters," in Cultural Studies, ed. Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson, and Paula A. Treichler (New York, 1992). For further discussion see also Paul N. Edwards, "Cyberpunks in Cyberspace: The Politics of Subjectivity in the Computer Age," in The Cultures of Computing, ed. Susan Leigh Star (London, 1995) and The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, Mass., 1996); and Ruth Oldenziel, "Of Old and New Cyborgs: Feminist Narratives of Technology," Letterature d'America (1996): 95-111.
166. These discussions of blurring boundaries between what is "human" and what is "machine" owe much to the work of Donna Haraway (n. 15 above). For a recent statement see Haraway, "The Promises of Monsters," in Cultural Studies, ed. Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson, and Paula A. Treichler (New York, 1992). For further discussion see also Paul N. Edwards, "Cyberpunks in Cyberspace: The Politics of Subjectivity in the Computer Age," in The Cultures of Computing, ed. Susan Leigh Star (London, 1995) and The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, Mass., 1996); and Ruth Oldenziel, "Of Old and New Cyborgs: Feminist Narratives of Technology," Letterature d'America (1996): 95-111.
167. These discussions of blurring boundaries between what is "human" and what is "machine" owe much to the work of Donna Haraway (n. 15 above). For a recent statement see Haraway, "The Promises of Monsters," in Cultural Studies, ed. Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson, and Paula A. Treichler (New York, 1992). For further discussion see also Paul N. Edwards, "Cyberpunks in Cyberspace: The Politics of Subjectivity in the Computer Age," in The Cultures of Computing, ed. Susan Leigh Star (London, 1995) and The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, Mass., 1996); and Ruth Oldenziel, "Of Old and New Cyborgs: Feminist Narratives of Technology," Letterature d'America (1996): 95-111.
168. One intriguing path is through the small literature on how the historical process of industrialization has reshaped conceptualizations of the human body. See Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity (New York, 1990); Mark Seltzer, Bodies and Machines (New York, 1992); and Barbara Duden, Woman Beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in 18th-Century Germant, trans. Thomas Dunlap (Cambridge, Mass., 1991); "'Quick with Child': An Experience That Has Lost Its Status," Technology in Society 14 (1992): 335-44; and Disembodying Women: Perspectives on Pregnancy and the Unborn, trans. Lee Hoinacki (Cambridge, Mass., 1993).
169. One intriguing path is through the small literature on how the historical process of industrialization has reshaped conceptualizations of the human body. See Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity (New York, 1990); Mark Seltzer, Bodies and Machines (New York, 1992); and Barbara Duden, Woman Beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in 18th-Century Germant, trans. Thomas Dunlap (Cambridge, Mass., 1991); "'Quick with Child': An Experience That Has Lost Its Status," Technology in Society 14 (1992): 335-44; and Disembodying Women: Perspectives on Pregnancy and the Unborn, trans. Lee Hoinacki (Cambridge, Mass., 1993).
170. One intriguing path is through the small literature on how the historical process of industrialization has reshaped conceptualizations of the human body. See Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity (New York, 1990); Mark Seltzer, Bodies and Machines (New York, 1992); and Barbara Duden, Woman Beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in 18th-Century Germant, trans. Thomas Dunlap (Cambridge, Mass., 1991); "'Quick with Child': An Experience That Has Lost Its Status," Technology in Society 14 (1992): 335-44; and Disembodying Women: Perspectives on Pregnancy and the Unborn, trans. Lee Hoinacki (Cambridge, Mass., 1993).
171. One intriguing path is through the small literature on how the historical process of industrialization has reshaped conceptualizations of the human body. See Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity (New York, 1990); Mark Seltzer, Bodies and Machines (New York, 1992); and Barbara Duden, Woman Beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in 18th-Century Germant, trans. Thomas Dunlap (Cambridge, Mass., 1991); "'Quick with Child': An Experience That Has Lost Its Status," Technology in Society 14 (1992): 335-44; and Disembodying Women: Perspectives on Pregnancy and the Unborn, trans. Lee Hoinacki (Cambridge, Mass., 1993).
172. One intriguing path is through the small literature on how the historical process of industrialization has reshaped conceptualizations of the human body. See Anson Rabinbach, The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity (New York, 1990); Mark Seltzer, Bodies and Machines (New York, 1992); and Barbara Duden, Woman Beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in 18th-Century Germant, trans. Thomas Dunlap (Cambridge, Mass., 1991); "'Quick with Child': An Experience That Has Lost Its Status," Technology in Society 14 (1992): 335-44; and Disembodying Women: Perspectives on Pregnancy and the Unborn, trans. Lee Hoinacki (Cambridge, Mass., 1993).
173. For overviews of these issues see Ava Baron's introduction to her edited Work Engendered: Towards a New Labor History (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Elizabeth Faue, "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 169-79; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 190-204. For examples of recent work on gender and skill see Margaret Lucille Hedstrom, "Automating the Office: Technology and Skill in Women's Clerical Work, 1940-1970" (Ph.D. diss. University of Wisconsin, 1988); Shirley Tillotson, "'We May All Soon Be 'First-Class Men': Gender and Skill in Canada's Early Twentieth Century Urban Telegraph Industry," Labour 27 (1991): 97-125; Wendy Gamber, "'Reduced to Science': Gender, Technology and Power in the American Dressmaking Trade, 1860-1910," Technology and Cultured (1995): 455-82; Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1995); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond the Typewriter: Gender, Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1992). The telephone industry has attracted disproportionate attention in recent years; see Michèle Martin, 'Hello, Central?' Gender, Technology, and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems (Montreal, 1991); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920," American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1074-1111; Venus Green, "Race and Technology: African-American Women in the Bell System, 1945-1980" Technology and Culture 36, suppl. (1995): S101-44 and "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878- 1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49. For older literature see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology."
174. For overviews of these issues see Ava Baron's introduction to her edited Work Engendered: Towards a New Labor History (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Elizabeth Faue, "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 169-79; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 190-204. For examples of recent work on gender and skill see Margaret Lucille Hedstrom, "Automating the Office: Technology and Skill in Women's Clerical Work, 1940-1970" (Ph.D. diss. University of Wisconsin, 1988); Shirley Tillotson, "'We May All Soon Be 'First-Class Men': Gender and Skill in Canada's Early Twentieth Century Urban Telegraph Industry," Labour 27 (1991): 97-125; Wendy Gamber, "'Reduced to Science': Gender, Technology and Power in the American Dressmaking Trade, 1860-1910," Technology and Cultured (1995): 455-82; Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1995); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond the Typewriter: Gender, Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1992). The telephone industry has attracted disproportionate attention in recent years; see Michèle Martin, 'Hello, Central?' Gender, Technology, and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems (Montreal, 1991); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920," American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1074-1111; Venus Green, "Race and Technology: African-American Women in the Bell System, 1945-1980" Technology and Culture 36, suppl. (1995): S101-44 and "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878- 1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49. For older literature see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology."
175. For overviews of these issues see Ava Baron's introduction to her edited Work Engendered: Towards a New Labor History (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Elizabeth Faue, "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 169-79; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 190-204. For examples of recent work on gender and skill see Margaret Lucille Hedstrom, "Automating the Office: Technology and Skill in Women's Clerical Work, 1940-1970" (Ph.D. diss. University of Wisconsin, 1988); Shirley Tillotson, "'We May All Soon Be 'First-Class Men': Gender and Skill in Canada's Early Twentieth Century Urban Telegraph Industry," Labour 27 (1991): 97-125; Wendy Gamber, "'Reduced to Science': Gender, Technology and Power in the American Dressmaking Trade, 1860-1910," Technology and Cultured (1995): 455-82; Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1995); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond the Typewriter: Gender, Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1992). The telephone industry has attracted disproportionate attention in recent years; see Michèle Martin, 'Hello, Central?' Gender, Technology, and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems (Montreal, 1991); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920," American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1074-1111; Venus Green, "Race and Technology: African-American Women in the Bell System, 1945-1980" Technology and Culture 36, suppl. (1995): S101-44 and "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878- 1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49. For older literature see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology."
176. For overviews of these issues see Ava Baron's introduction to her edited Work Engendered: Towards a New Labor History (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Elizabeth Faue, "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 169-79; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 190-204. For examples of recent work on gender and skill see Margaret Lucille Hedstrom, "Automating the Office: Technology and Skill in Women's Clerical Work, 1940-1970" (Ph.D. diss. University of Wisconsin, 1988); Shirley Tillotson, "'We May All Soon Be 'First-Class Men': Gender and Skill in Canada's Early Twentieth Century Urban Telegraph Industry," Labour 27 (1991): 97-125; Wendy Gamber, "'Reduced to Science': Gender, Technology and Power in the American Dressmaking Trade, 1860-1910," Technology and Cultured (1995): 455-82; Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1995); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond the Typewriter: Gender, Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1992). The telephone industry has attracted disproportionate attention in recent years; see Michèle Martin, 'Hello, Central?' Gender, Technology, and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems (Montreal, 1991); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920," American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1074-1111; Venus Green, "Race and Technology: African-American Women in the Bell System, 1945-1980" Technology and Culture 36, suppl. (1995): S101-44 and "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878- 1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49. For older literature see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology."
177. For overviews of these issues see Ava Baron's introduction to her edited Work Engendered: Towards a New Labor History (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Elizabeth Faue, "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 169-79; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 190-204. For examples of recent work on gender and skill see Margaret Lucille Hedstrom, "Automating the Office: Technology and Skill in Women's Clerical Work, 1940-1970" (Ph.D. diss. University of Wisconsin, 1988); Shirley Tillotson, "'We May All Soon Be 'First-Class Men': Gender and Skill in Canada's Early Twentieth Century Urban Telegraph Industry," Labour 27 (1991): 97-125; Wendy Gamber, "'Reduced to Science': Gender, Technology and Power in the American Dressmaking Trade, 1860-1910," Technology and Cultured (1995): 455-82; Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1995); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond the Typewriter: Gender, Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1992). The telephone industry has attracted disproportionate attention in recent years; see Michèle Martin, 'Hello, Central?' Gender, Technology, and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems (Montreal, 1991); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920," American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1074-1111; Venus Green, "Race and Technology: African-American Women in the Bell System, 1945-1980" Technology and Culture 36, suppl. (1995): S101-44 and "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878- 1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49. For older literature see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology."
178. For overviews of these issues see Ava Baron's introduction to her edited Work Engendered: Towards a New Labor History (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Elizabeth Faue, "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 169-79; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 190-204. For examples of recent work on gender and skill see Margaret Lucille Hedstrom, "Automating the Office: Technology and Skill in Women's Clerical Work, 1940-1970" (Ph.D. diss. University of Wisconsin, 1988); Shirley Tillotson, "'We May All Soon Be 'First-Class Men': Gender and Skill in Canada's Early Twentieth Century Urban Telegraph Industry," Labour 27 (1991): 97-125; Wendy Gamber, "'Reduced to Science': Gender, Technology and Power in the American Dressmaking Trade, 1860-1910," Technology and Cultured (1995): 455-82; Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1995); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond the Typewriter: Gender, Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1992). The telephone industry has attracted disproportionate attention in recent years; see Michèle Martin, 'Hello, Central?' Gender, Technology, and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems (Montreal, 1991); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920," American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1074-1111; Venus Green, "Race and Technology: African-American Women in the Bell System, 1945-1980" Technology and Culture 36, suppl. (1995): S101-44 and "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878- 1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49. For older literature see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology."
179. For overviews of these issues see Ava Baron's introduction to her edited Work Engendered: Towards a New Labor History (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Elizabeth Faue, "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 169-79; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 190-204. For examples of recent work on gender and skill see Margaret Lucille Hedstrom, "Automating the Office: Technology and Skill in Women's Clerical Work, 1940-1970" (Ph.D. diss. University of Wisconsin, 1988); Shirley Tillotson, "'We May All Soon Be 'First-Class Men': Gender and Skill in Canada's Early Twentieth Century Urban Telegraph Industry," Labour 27 (1991): 97-125; Wendy Gamber, "'Reduced to Science': Gender, Technology and Power in the American Dressmaking Trade, 1860-1910," Technology and Cultured (1995): 455-82; Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1995); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond the Typewriter: Gender, Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1992). The telephone industry has attracted disproportionate attention in recent years; see Michèle Martin, 'Hello, Central?' Gender, Technology, and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems (Montreal, 1991); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920," American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1074-1111; Venus Green, "Race and Technology: African-American Women in the Bell System, 1945-1980" Technology and Culture 36, suppl. (1995): S101-44 and "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878- 1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49. For older literature see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology."
180. For overviews of these issues see Ava Baron's introduction to her edited Work Engendered: Towards a New Labor History (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Elizabeth Faue, "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 169-79; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 190-204. For examples of recent work on gender and skill see Margaret Lucille Hedstrom, "Automating the Office: Technology and Skill in Women's Clerical Work, 1940-1970" (Ph.D. diss. University of Wisconsin, 1988); Shirley Tillotson, "'We May All Soon Be 'First-Class Men': Gender and Skill in Canada's Early Twentieth Century Urban Telegraph Industry," Labour 27 (1991): 97-125; Wendy Gamber, "'Reduced to Science': Gender, Technology and Power in the American Dressmaking Trade, 1860-1910," Technology and Cultured (1995): 455-82; Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1995); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond the Typewriter: Gender, Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1992). The telephone industry has attracted disproportionate attention in recent years; see Michèle Martin, 'Hello, Central?' Gender, Technology, and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems (Montreal, 1991); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920," American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1074-1111; Venus Green, "Race and Technology: African-American Women in the Bell System, 1945-1980" Technology and Culture 36, suppl. (1995): S101-44 and "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878- 1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49. For older literature see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology."
181. For overviews of these issues see Ava Baron's introduction to her edited Work Engendered: Towards a New Labor History (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Elizabeth Faue, "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 169-79; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 190-204. For examples of recent work on gender and skill see Margaret Lucille Hedstrom, "Automating the Office: Technology and Skill in Women's Clerical Work, 1940-1970" (Ph.D. diss. University of Wisconsin, 1988); Shirley Tillotson, "'We May All Soon Be 'First-Class Men': Gender and Skill in Canada's Early Twentieth Century Urban Telegraph Industry," Labour 27 (1991): 97-125; Wendy Gamber, "'Reduced to Science': Gender, Technology and Power in the American Dressmaking Trade, 1860-1910," Technology and Cultured (1995): 455-82; Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1995); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond the Typewriter: Gender, Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1992). The telephone industry has attracted disproportionate attention in recent years; see Michèle Martin, 'Hello, Central?' Gender, Technology, and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems (Montreal, 1991); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920," American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1074-1111; Venus Green, "Race and Technology: African-American Women in the Bell System, 1945-1980" Technology and Culture 36, suppl. (1995): S101-44 and "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878- 1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49. For older literature see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology."
182. For overviews of these issues see Ava Baron's introduction to her edited Work Engendered: Towards a New Labor History (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Elizabeth Faue, "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 169-79; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 190-204. For examples of recent work on gender and skill see Margaret Lucille Hedstrom, "Automating the Office: Technology and Skill in Women's Clerical Work, 1940-1970" (Ph.D. diss. University of Wisconsin, 1988); Shirley Tillotson, "'We May All Soon Be 'First-Class Men': Gender and Skill in Canada's Early Twentieth Century Urban Telegraph Industry," Labour 27 (1991): 97-125; Wendy Gamber, "'Reduced to Science': Gender, Technology and Power in the American Dressmaking Trade, 1860-1910," Technology and Cultured (1995): 455-82; Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1995); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond the Typewriter: Gender, Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1992). The telephone industry has attracted disproportionate attention in recent years; see Michèle Martin, 'Hello, Central?' Gender, Technology, and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems (Montreal, 1991); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920," American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1074-1111; Venus Green, "Race and Technology: African-American Women in the Bell System, 1945-1980" Technology and Culture 36, suppl. (1995): S101-44 and "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878- 1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49. For older literature see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology."
183. For overviews of these issues see Ava Baron's introduction to her edited Work Engendered: Towards a New Labor History (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Elizabeth Faue, "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 169-79; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 190-204. For examples of recent work on gender and skill see Margaret Lucille Hedstrom, "Automating the Office: Technology and Skill in Women's Clerical Work, 1940-1970" (Ph.D. diss. University of Wisconsin, 1988); Shirley Tillotson, "'We May All Soon Be 'First-Class Men': Gender and Skill in Canada's Early Twentieth Century Urban Telegraph Industry," Labour 27 (1991): 97-125; Wendy Gamber, "'Reduced to Science': Gender, Technology and Power in the American Dressmaking Trade, 1860-1910," Technology and Cultured (1995): 455-82; Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1995); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond the Typewriter: Gender, Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1992). The telephone industry has attracted disproportionate attention in recent years; see Michèle Martin, 'Hello, Central?' Gender, Technology, and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems (Montreal, 1991); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920," American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1074-1111; Venus Green, "Race and Technology: African-American Women in the Bell System, 1945-1980" Technology and Culture 36, suppl. (1995): S101-44 and "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878- 1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49. For older literature see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology."
184. For overviews of these issues see Ava Baron's introduction to her edited Work Engendered: Towards a New Labor History (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Elizabeth Faue, "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 169-79; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 190-204. For examples of recent work on gender and skill see Margaret Lucille Hedstrom, "Automating the Office: Technology and Skill in Women's Clerical Work, 1940-1970" (Ph.D. diss. University of Wisconsin, 1988); Shirley Tillotson, "'We May All Soon Be 'First-Class Men': Gender and Skill in Canada's Early Twentieth Century Urban Telegraph Industry," Labour 27 (1991): 97-125; Wendy Gamber, "'Reduced to Science': Gender, Technology and Power in the American Dressmaking Trade, 1860-1910," Technology and Cultured (1995): 455-82; Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1995); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond the Typewriter: Gender, Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1992). The telephone industry has attracted disproportionate attention in recent years; see Michèle Martin, 'Hello, Central?' Gender, Technology, and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems (Montreal, 1991); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920," American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1074-1111; Venus Green, "Race and Technology: African-American Women in the Bell System, 1945-1980" Technology and Culture 36, suppl. (1995): S101-44 and "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878-1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49. For older literature see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology."
185. For overviews of these issues see Ava Baron's introduction to her edited Work Engendered: Towards a New Labor History (Ithaca, N.Y., 1991); Elizabeth Faue, "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 169-79; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History," Labor History 34 (1993): 190-204. For examples of recent work on gender and skill see Margaret Lucille Hedstrom, "Automating the Office: Technology and Skill in Women's Clerical Work, 1940-1970" (Ph.D. diss. University of Wisconsin, 1988); Shirley Tillotson, "'We May All Soon Be 'First-Class Men': Gender and Skill in Canada's Early Twentieth Century Urban Telegraph Industry," Labour 27 (1991): 97-125; Wendy Gamber, "'Reduced to Science': Gender, Technology and Power in the American Dressmaking Trade, 1860-1910," Technology and Cultured (1995): 455-82; Laura Lee Downs, Manufacturing Inequality: Gender Division in the French and British Metalworking Industries, 1914-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1995); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond the Typewriter: Gender, Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1992). The telephone industry has attracted disproportionate attention in recent years; see Michèle Martin, 'Hello, Central?' Gender, Technology, and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems (Montreal, 1991); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920," American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1074-1111; Venus Green, "Race and Technology: African-American Women in the Bell System, 1945-1980" Technology and Culture 36, suppl. (1995): S101-44 and "Goodbye Central: Automation and the Decline of 'Personal Service' in the Bell System, 1878- 1921," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): 912-49. For older literature see McGaw, "Women and the History of American Technology."
186. Exceptions include Judith McGaw, Most Wonderful Machine: Mechanization and Social Change in Berkshire Paper Making, 1801-1885 (Princeton, N.J., 1987); Patricia A. Cooper, Once A Cigar Maker: Men, Women, and Work Culture in American Cigar Factories, 1900-1919 (Urbana, Ill., 1987) and "What this Country Needs is a Good Five- Cent Cigar," Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 779-807. See also Arwen Mohun, "Why Mrs. Harrison Never Learned to Iron: Gender, Skill, and Mechanization in the Steam Laundry Industry," Gender and History 8 (1996): 231-51, and Roger Horowitz's article in this issue.
187. Exceptions include Judith McGaw, Most Wonderful Machine: Mechanization and Social Change in Berkshire Paper Making, 1801-1885 (Princeton, N.J., 1987); Patricia A. Cooper, Once A Cigar Maker: Men, Women, and Work Culture in American Cigar Factories, 1900-1919 (Urbana, Ill., 1987) and "What this Country Needs is a Good Five- Cent Cigar," Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 779-807. See also Arwen Mohun, "Why Mrs. Harrison Never Learned to Iron: Gender, Skill, and Mechanization in the Steam Laundry Industry," Gender and History 8 (1996): 231-51, and Roger Horowitz's article in this issue.
188. Exceptions include Judith McGaw, Most Wonderful Machine: Mechanization and Social Change in Berkshire Paper Making, 1801-1885 (Princeton, N.J., 1987); Patricia A. Cooper, Once A Cigar Maker: Men, Women, and Work Culture in American Cigar Factories, 1900-1919 (Urbana, Ill., 1987) and "What this Country Needs is a Good Five-Cent Cigar," Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 779-807. See also Arwen Mohun, "Why Mrs. Harrison Never Learned to Iron: Gender, Skill, and Mechanization in the Steam Laundry Industry," Gender and History 8 (1996): 231-51, and Roger Horowitz's article in this issue.
189. Exceptions include Judith McGaw, Most Wonderful Machine: Mechanization and Social Change in Berkshire Paper Making, 1801-1885 (Princeton, N.J., 1987); Patricia A. Cooper, Once A Cigar Maker: Men, Women, and Work Culture in American Cigar Factories, 1900-1919 (Urbana, Ill., 1987) and "What this Country Needs is a Good Five- Cent Cigar," Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 779-807. See also Arwen Mohun, "Why Mrs. Harrison Never Learned to Iron: Gender, Skill, and Mechanization in the Steam Laundry Industry," Gender and History 8 (1996): 231-51, and Roger Horowitz's article in this issue.
190. This is the argument Ruth Schwartz Cowan set forth in "The 'Industrial Revolution' in the Home" (n. 2 above).
191. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983) explicitly qualified conventional boosterism of household innovations as laborsaving devices for women. For further discussion and examples see Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982). Canadian scholarship is especially strong in this area: Tanis Day, "Substituting Capital for Labour in the Home: The Diffusion of Household Technology" (Ph.D. diss., Queen's University, 1987); Suzanne Marchand, "L'impact des innovations technologiques sur la vie quotidienne des quebeçoises du debut du XXe siècle, 1910-1940," Material History Bulletin 28 (1988): 1-14. For the French case, see Robert L. Frost, "Machine Liberation: Inventing Housewives and Home Appliances in Interwar France," French Historical Studies 18 (1993): 109- 30. On sewing, see Betty Ring, "Let Virtue Be a Guide to Thee": Needlework in the Education of Rhode Island Women, 1730-1830 (Providence, R.I., 1983) and Roszika Parker, The Subversive Stitch: Embroidery and the Making of the Feminine (London, 1984); Rachel Maines, "The Tools of the Workbasket: Needlework Technology in the Industrial Era," in Bits and Pieces: Textile Traditions, ed. Jeannette Lasansky (Lewisburg, Penn., 1991). On technological changes in the household and women's role in them see also Maureen Ogle, "Domestic Reform and American Household Plumbing, 1840- 1870," Winterthur Portfolio 28 (1993): 33-58.
192. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983) explicitly qualified conventional boosterism of household innovations as laborsaving devices for women. For further discussion and examples see Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982). Canadian scholarship is especially strong in this area: Tanis Day, "Substituting Capital for Labour in the Home: The Diffusion of Household Technology" (Ph.D. diss., Queen's University, 1987); Suzanne Marchand, "L'impact des innovations technologiques sur la vie quotidienne des quebeçoises du debut du XXe siècle, 1910-1940," Material History Bulletin 28 (1988): 1-14. For the French case, see Robert L. Frost, "Machine Liberation: Inventing Housewives and Home Appliances in Interwar France," French Historical Studies 18 (1993): 109- 30. On sewing, see Betty Ring, "Let Virtue Be a Guide to Thee": Needlework in the Education of Rhode Island Women, 1730-1830 (Providence, R.I., 1983) and Roszika Parker, The Subversive Stitch: Embroidery and the Making of the Feminine (London, 1984); Rachel Maines, "The Tools of the Workbasket: Needlework Technology in the Industrial Era," in Bits and Pieces: Textile Traditions, ed. Jeannette Lasansky (Lewisburg, Penn., 1991). On technological changes in the household and women's role in them see also Maureen Ogle, "Domestic Reform and American Household Plumbing, 1840- 1870," Winterthur Portfolio 28 (1993): 33-58.
193. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983) explicitly qualified conventional boosterism of household innovations as laborsaving devices for women. For further discussion and examples see Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982). Canadian scholarship is especially strong in this area: Tanis Day, "Substituting Capital for Labour in the Home: The Diffusion of Household Technology" (Ph.D. diss., Queen's University, 1987); Suzanne Marchand, "L'impact des innovations technologiques sur la vie quotidienne des quebeçoises du debut du XXe siècle, 1910-1940," Material History Bulletin 28 (1988): 1-14. For the French case, see Robert L. Frost, "Machine Liberation: Inventing Housewives and Home Appliances in Interwar France," French Historical Studies 18 (1993): 109- 30. On sewing, see Betty Ring, "Let Virtue Be a Guide to Thee": Needlework in the Education of Rhode Island Women, 1730-1830 (Providence, R.I., 1983) and Roszika Parker, The Subversive Stitch: Embroidery and the Making of the Feminine (London, 1984); Rachel Maines, "The Tools of the Workbasket: Needlework Technology in the Industrial Era," in Bits and Pieces: Textile Traditions, ed. Jeannette Lasansky (Lewisburg, Penn., 1991). On technological changes in the household and women's role in them see also Maureen Ogle, "Domestic Reform and American Household Plumbing, 1840- 1870," Winterthur Portfolio 28 (1993): 33-58.
194. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983) explicitly qualified conventional boosterism of household innovations as laborsaving devices for women. For further discussion and examples see Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982). Canadian scholarship is especially strong in this area: Tanis Day, "Substituting Capital for Labour in the Home: The Diffusion of Household Technology" (Ph.D. diss., Queen's University, 1987); Suzanne Marchand, "L'impact des innovations technologiques sur la vie quotidienne des quebeçoises du debut du XXe siècle, 1910-1940," Material History Bulletin 28 (1988): 1-14. For the French case, see Robert L. Frost, "Machine Liberation: Inventing Housewives and Home Appliances in Interwar France," French Historical Studies 18 (1993): 109- 30. On sewing, see Betty Ring, "Let Virtue Be a Guide to Thee": Needlework in the Education of Rhode Island Women, 1730-1830 (Providence, R.I., 1983) and Roszika Parker, The Subversive Stitch: Embroidery and the Making of the Feminine (London, 1984); Rachel Maines, "The Tools of the Workbasket: Needlework Technology in the Industrial Era," in Bits and Pieces: Textile Traditions, ed. Jeannette Lasansky (Lewisburg, Penn., 1991). On technological changes in the household and women's role in them see also Maureen Ogle, "Domestic Reform and American Household Plumbing, 1840- 1870," Winterthur Portfolio 28 (1993): 33-58.
195. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983) explicitly qualified conventional boosterism of household innovations as laborsaving devices for women. For further discussion and examples see Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982). Canadian scholarship is especially strong in this area: Tanis Day, "Substituting Capital for Labour in the Home: The Diffusion of Household Technology" (Ph.D. diss., Queen's University, 1987); Suzanne Marchand, "L'impact des innovations technologiques sur la vie quotidienne des quebeçoises du debut du XXe siècle, 1910-1940," Material History Bulletin 28 (1988): 1-14. For the French case, see Robert L. Frost, "Machine Liberation: Inventing Housewives and Home Appliances in Interwar France," French Historical Studies 18 (1993): 109-30. On sewing, see Betty Ring, "Let Virtue Be a Guide to Thee": Needlework in the Education of Rhode Island Women, 1730-1830 (Providence, R.I., 1983) and Roszika Parker, The Subversive Stitch: Embroidery and the Making of the Feminine (London, 1984); Rachel Maines, "The Tools of the Workbasket: Needlework Technology in the Industrial Era," in Bits and Pieces: Textile Traditions, ed. Jeannette Lasansky (Lewisburg, Penn., 1991). On technological changes in the household and women's role in them see also Maureen Ogle, "Domestic Reform and American Household Plumbing, 1840- 1870," Winterthur Portfolio 28 (1993): 33-58.
196. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983) explicitly qualified conventional boosterism of household innovations as laborsaving devices for women. For further discussion and examples see Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982). Canadian scholarship is especially strong in this area: Tanis Day, "Substituting Capital for Labour in the Home: The Diffusion of Household Technology" (Ph.D. diss., Queen's University, 1987); Suzanne Marchand, "L'impact des innovations technologiques sur la vie quotidienne des quebeçoises du debut du XXe siècle, 1910-1940," Material History Bulletin 28 (1988): 1-14. For the French case, see Robert L. Frost, "Machine Liberation: Inventing Housewives and Home Appliances in Interwar France," French Historical Studies 18 (1993): 109- 30. On sewing, see Betty Ring, "Let Virtue Be a Guide to Thee": Needlework in the Education of Rhode Island Women, 1730-1830 (Providence, R.I., 1983) and Roszika Parker, The Subversive Stitch: Embroidery and the Making of the Feminine (London, 1984); Rachel Maines, "The Tools of the Workbasket: Needlework Technology in the Industrial Era," in Bits and Pieces: Textile Traditions, ed. Jeannette Lasansky (Lewisburg, Penn., 1991). On technological changes in the household and women's role in them see also Maureen Ogle, "Domestic Reform and American Household Plumbing, 1840- 1870," Winterthur Portfolio 28 (1993): 33-58.
197. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983) explicitly qualified conventional boosterism of household innovations as laborsaving devices for women. For further discussion and examples see Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982). Canadian scholarship is especially strong in this area: Tanis Day, "Substituting Capital for Labour in the Home: The Diffusion of Household Technology" (Ph.D. diss., Queen's University, 1987); Suzanne Marchand, "L'impact des innovations technologiques sur la vie quotidienne des quebeçoises du debut du XXe siècle, 1910-1940," Material History Bulletin 28 (1988): 1-14. For the French case, see Robert L. Frost, "Machine Liberation: Inventing Housewives and Home Appliances in Interwar France," French Historical Studies 18 (1993): 109- 30. On sewing, see Betty Ring, "Let Virtue Be a Guide to Thee": Needlework in the Education of Rhode Island Women, 1730-1830 (Providence, R.I., 1983) and Roszika Parker, The Subversive Stitch: Embroidery and the Making of the Feminine (London, 1984); Rachel Maines, "The Tools of the Workbasket: Needlework Technology in the Industrial Era," in Bits and Pieces: Textile Traditions, ed. Jeannette Lasansky (Lewisburg, Penn., 1991). On technological changes in the household and women's role in them see also Maureen Ogle, "Domestic Reform and American Household Plumbing, 1840- 1870," Winterthur Portfolio 28 (1993): 33-58.
198. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983) explicitly qualified conventional boosterism of household innovations as laborsaving devices for women. For further discussion and examples see Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982). Canadian scholarship is especially strong in this area: Tanis Day, "Substituting Capital for Labour in the Home: The Diffusion of Household Technology" (Ph.D. diss., Queen's University, 1987); Suzanne Marchand, "L'impact des innovations technologiques sur la vie quotidienne des quebeçoises du debut du XXe siècle, 1910-1940," Material History Bulletin 28 (1988): 1-14. For the French case, see Robert L. Frost, "Machine Liberation: Inventing Housewives and Home Appliances in Interwar France," French Historical Studies 18 (1993): 109- 30. On sewing, see Betty Ring, "Let Virtue Be a Guide to Thee": Needlework in the Education of Rhode Island Women, 1730-1830 (Providence, R.I., 1983) and Roszika Parker, The Subversive Stitch: Embroidery and the Making of the Feminine (London, 1984); Rachel Maines, "The Tools of the Workbasket: Needlework Technology in the Industrial Era," in Bits and Pieces: Textile Traditions, ed. Jeannette Lasansky (Lewisburg, Penn., 1991). On technological changes in the household and women's role in them see also Maureen Ogle, "Domestic Reform and American Household Plumbing, 1840- 1870," Winterthur Portfolio 28 (1993): 33-58.
199. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983) explicitly qualified conventional boosterism of household innovations as laborsaving devices for women. For further discussion and examples see Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982). Canadian scholarship is especially strong in this area: Tanis Day, "Substituting Capital for Labour in the Home: The Diffusion of Household Technology" (Ph.D. diss., Queen's University, 1987); Suzanne Marchand, "L'impact des innovations technologiques sur la vie quotidienne des quebeçoises du debut du XXe siècle, 1910-1940," Material History Bulletin 28 (1988): 1-14. For the French case, see Robert L. Frost, "Machine Liberation: Inventing Housewives and Home Appliances in Interwar France," French Historical Studies 18 (1993): 109- 30. On sewing, see Betty Ring, "Let Virtue Be a Guide to Thee": Needlework in the Education of Rhode Island Women, 1730-1830 (Providence, R.I., 1983) and Roszika Parker, The Subversive Stitch: Embroidery and the Making of the Feminine (London, 1984); Rachel Maines, "The Tools of the Workbasket: Needlework Technology in the Industrial Era," in Bits and Pieces: Textile Traditions, ed. Jeannette Lasansky (Lewisburg, Penn., 1991). On technological changes in the household and women's role in them see also Maureen Ogle, "Domestic Reform and American Household Plumbing, 1840-1870," Winterthur Portfolio 28 (1993): 33-58.
200. Cockburn and Fürst-Dilic, Bringing Technology Home (n. 28 above). On rural areas, see Joan Jensen, Loosening the Bonds: Mid-Atlantic Farm Women, 1750-1850 (New Haven, Conn., 1986); Katherine Jellison, Entitled to Power: Farm Women and Technology, 1913-1963 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); Angela E. Davis, "'Valiant Servants': Women and Technology on the Canadian Prairies, 1910-1940," Manitoba History 25 (1993): 33-42; Glenda Riley, "In or Out of the Historical Kitchen? Interpretations of Minnesota Rural Women," Minnesota History 52 (1990): 61-71, and The Female Frontier: A Comparative View of Women on the Prairie and the Plains (Lawrence, Kans., 1988).
201. Cockburn and Fürst-Dilic, Bringing Technology Home (n. 28 above). On rural areas, see Joan Jensen, Loosening the Bonds: Mid-Atlantic Farm Women, 1750-1850 (New Haven, Conn., 1986); Katherine Jellison, Entitled to Power: Farm Women and Technology, 1913-1963 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); Angela E. Davis, "'Valiant Servants': Women and Technology on the Canadian Prairies, 1910-1940," Manitoba History 25 (1993): 33-42; Glenda Riley, "In or Out of the Historical Kitchen? Interpretations of Minnesota Rural Women," Minnesota History 52 (1990): 61-71, and The Female Frontier: A Comparative View of Women on the Prairie and the Plains (Lawrence, Kans., 1988).
202. Cockburn and Fürst-Dilic, Bringing Technology Home (n. 28 above). On rural areas, see Joan Jensen, Loosening the Bonds: Mid-Atlantic Farm Women, 1750-1850 (New Haven, Conn., 1986); Katherine Jellison, Entitled to Power: Farm Women and Technology, 1913-1963 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); Angela E. Davis, "'Valiant Servants': Women and Technology on the Canadian Prairies, 1910-1940," Manitoba History 25 (1993): 33-42; Glenda Riley, "In or Out of the Historical Kitchen? Interpretations of Minnesota Rural Women," Minnesota History 52 (1990): 61-71, and The Female Frontier: A Comparative View of Women on the Prairie and the Plains (Lawrence, Kans., 1988).
203. Cockburn and Fürst-Dilic, Bringing Technology Home (n. 28 above). On rural areas, see Joan Jensen, Loosening the Bonds: Mid-Atlantic Farm Women, 1750-1850 (New Haven, Conn., 1986); Katherine Jellison, Entitled to Power: Farm Women and Technology, 1913-1963 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); Angela E. Davis, "'Valiant Servants': Women and Technology on the Canadian Prairies, 1910-1940," Manitoba History 25 (1993): 33-42; Glenda Riley, "In or Out of the Historical Kitchen? Interpretations of Minnesota Rural Women," Minnesota History 52 (1990): 61-71, and The Female Frontier: A Comparative View of Women on the Prairie and the Plains (Lawrence, Kans., 1988).
204. Cockburn and Fürst-Dilic, Bringing Technology Home (n. 28 above). On rural areas, see Joan Jensen, Loosening the Bonds: Mid-Atlantic Farm Women, 1750-1850 (New Haven, Conn., 1986); Katherine Jellison, Entitled to Power: Farm Women and Technology, 1913-1963 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); Angela E. Davis, "'Valiant Servants': Women and Technology on the Canadian Prairies, 1910-1940," Manitoba History 25 (1993): 33-42; Glenda Riley, "In or Out of the Historical Kitchen? Interpretations of Minnesota Rural Women," Minnesota History 52 (1990): 61-71, and The Female Frontier: A Comparative View of Women on the Prairie and the Plains (Lawrence, Kans., 1988).
205. Cockburn and Fürst-Dilic, Bringing Technology Home (n. 28 above). On rural areas, see Joan Jensen, Loosening the Bonds: Mid-Atlantic Farm Women, 1750-1850 (New Haven, Conn., 1986); Katherine Jellison, Entitled to Power: Farm Women and Technology, 1913-1963 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993); Angela E. Davis, "'Valiant Servants': Women and Technology on the Canadian Prairies, 1910-1940," Manitoba History 25 (1993): 33-42; Glenda Riley, "In or Out of the Historical Kitchen? Interpretations of Minnesota Rural Women," Minnesota History 52 (1990): 61-71, and The Female Frontier: A Comparative View of Women on the Prairie and the Plains (Lawrence, Kans., 1988).
206. Karen Calvert, Children in the House: the Material Culture of Early Childhood, 1600-1900 (Boston, 1992); Mary Lynn Stevens Heininger et al., A Century of Childhood, 1820-1920 (Rochester, N.Y., 1984); Pursell, "Toys, Technology, and Sex Roles in America" (n. 21 above). See also the articles by Nina Lerman and Ruth Oldenziel in this issue.
207. Karen Calvert, Children in the House: the Material Culture of Early Childhood, 1600- 1900 (Boston, 1992); Mary Lynn Stevens Heininger et al., A Century of Childhood, 1820-1920 (Rochester, N.Y., 1984); Pursell, "Toys, Technology, and Sex Roles in America" (n. 21 above). See also the articles by Nina Lerman and Ruth Oldenziel in this issue.
208. Karen Calvert, Children in the House: the Material Culture of Early Childhood, 1600- 1900 (Boston, 1992); Mary Lynn Stevens Heininger et al., A Century of Childhood, 1820-1920 (Rochester, N.Y., 1984); Pursell, "Toys, Technology, and Sex Roles in America" (n. 21 above). See also the articles by Nina Lerman and Ruth Oldenziel in this issue.
209. For more recent work see Jeanne Boydston, Home and Work: Housework, Wages, and the Ideology of Labor in the Early Republic (New York, 1990); Amelia Grace Preece, "Housework and American Standards of Living, 1920-1980," (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1990); Arwen Palmer Mohun, "Women, Work and Technology: The Steam Laundry Industry in Great Britain and the United States, 1880- 1920" (Ph.D. diss., Case Western Reserve University, 1992).
210. For more recent work see Jeanne Boydston, Home and Work: Housework, Wages, and the Ideology of Labor in the Early Republic (New York, 1990); Amelia Grace Preece, "Housework and American Standards of Living, 1920-1980," (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1990); Arwen Palmer Mohun, "Women, Work and Technology: The Steam Laundry Industry in Great Britain and the United States, 1880- 1920" (Ph.D. diss., Case Western Reserve University, 1992).
211. For more recent work see Jeanne Boydston, Home and Work: Housework, Wages, and the Ideology of Labor in the Early Republic (New York, 1990); Amelia Grace Preece, "Housework and American Standards of Living, 1920-1980," (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1990); Arwen Palmer Mohun, "Women, Work and Technology: The Steam Laundry Industry in Great Britain and the United States, 1880-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Case Western Reserve University, 1992).
212. McGaW, "Women and the History of American Technology" (n. 4 above), p. 827.
213. See Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of Consumer Culture (New York, 1977); T. J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Revolution," The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880-1980, ed. Richard Wightman Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears (New York, 1983); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1985); Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (New York, 1989); Richard Tedlow, New and Improved: The Story of Mass Marketing in America (New York, 1990); William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993); T. J. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994). On consumers in Europe, see Rosalind Williams, Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1982); Michael Barry Miller, The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869-1920 (Princeton, N.J., 1981). For recent scholarship on advertising and marketing taking into account technology, gender, and consumers as active agents, see Susan Smulyan, Selling Radio: the Commercialization of American Broadcasting, 1920- 1934 (Washington, D.C., 1994); Carolyn Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption: Home Economics and American Consumers, 1900-1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1994); and Regina Lee Blaszcyk, "Imagining Consumers: Manufacturers and Markets in Ceramics and Glass, 1865-1965" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1995).
214. See Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of Consumer Culture (New York, 1977); T. J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Revolution," The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880-1980, ed. Richard Wightman Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears (New York, 1983); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1985); Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (New York, 1989); Richard Tedlow, New and Improved: The Story of Mass Marketing in America (New York, 1990); William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993); T. J. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994). On consumers in Europe, see Rosalind Williams, Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1982); Michael Barry Miller, The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869-1920 (Princeton, N.J., 1981). For recent scholarship on advertising and marketing taking into account technology, gender, and consumers as active agents, see Susan Smulyan, Selling Radio: the Commercialization of American Broadcasting, 1920- 1934 (Washington, D.C., 1994); Carolyn Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption: Home Economics and American Consumers, 1900-1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1994); and Regina Lee Blaszcyk, "Imagining Consumers: Manufacturers and Markets in Ceramics and Glass, 1865-1965" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1995).
215. See Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of Consumer Culture (New York, 1977); T. J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Revolution," The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880-1980, ed. Richard Wightman Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears (New York, 1983); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1985); Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (New York, 1989); Richard Tedlow, New and Improved: The Story of Mass Marketing in America (New York, 1990); William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993); T. J. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994). On consumers in Europe, see Rosalind Williams, Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1982); Michael Barry Miller, The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869-1920 (Princeton, N.J., 1981). For recent scholarship on advertising and marketing taking into account technology, gender, and consumers as active agents, see Susan Smulyan, Selling Radio: the Commercialization of American Broadcasting, 1920- 1934 (Washington, D.C., 1994); Carolyn Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption: Home Economics and American Consumers, 1900-1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1994); and Regina Lee Blaszcyk, "Imagining Consumers: Manufacturers and Markets in Ceramics and Glass, 1865-1965" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1995).
216. See Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of Consumer Culture (New York, 1977); T. J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Revolution," The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880-1980, ed. Richard Wightman Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears (New York, 1983); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1985); Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (New York, 1989); Richard Tedlow, New and Improved: The Story of Mass Marketing in America (New York, 1990); William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993); T. J. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994). On consumers in Europe, see Rosalind Williams, Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1982); Michael Barry Miller, The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869-1920 (Princeton, N.J., 1981). For recent scholarship on advertising and marketing taking into account technology, gender, and consumers as active agents, see Susan Smulyan, Selling Radio: the Commercialization of American Broadcasting, 1920- 1934 (Washington, D.C., 1994); Carolyn Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption: Home Economics and American Consumers, 1900-1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1994); and Regina Lee Blaszcyk, "Imagining Consumers: Manufacturers and Markets in Ceramics and Glass, 1865-1965" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1995).
217. See Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of Consumer Culture (New York, 1977); T. J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Revolution," The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880-1980, ed. Richard Wightman Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears (New York, 1983); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1985); Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (New York, 1989); Richard Tedlow, New and Improved: The Story of Mass Marketing in America (New York, 1990); William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993); T. J. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994). On consumers in Europe, see Rosalind Williams, Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1982); Michael Barry Miller, The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869-1920 (Princeton, N.J., 1981). For recent scholarship on advertising and marketing taking into account technology, gender, and consumers as active agents, see Susan Smulyan, Selling Radio: the Commercialization of American Broadcasting, 1920- 1934 (Washington, D.C., 1994); Carolyn Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption: Home Economics and American Consumers, 1900-1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1994); and Regina Lee Blaszcyk, "Imagining Consumers: Manufacturers and Markets in Ceramics and Glass, 1865-1965" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1995).
218. See Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of Consumer Culture (New York, 1977); T. J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Revolution," The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880-1980, ed. Richard Wightman Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears (New York, 1983); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1985); Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (New York, 1989); Richard Tedlow, New and Improved: The Story of Mass Marketing in America (New York, 1990); William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993); T. J. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994). On consumers in Europe, see Rosalind Williams, Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1982); Michael Barry Miller, The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869-1920 (Princeton, N.J., 1981). For recent scholarship on advertising and marketing taking into account technology, gender, and consumers as active agents, see Susan Smulyan, Selling Radio: the Commercialization of American Broadcasting, 1920- 1934 (Washington, D.C., 1994); Carolyn Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption: Home Economics and American Consumers, 1900-1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1994); and Regina Lee Blaszcyk, "Imagining Consumers: Manufacturers and Markets in Ceramics and Glass, 1865-1965" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1995).
219. See Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of Consumer Culture (New York, 1977); T. J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Revolution," The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880-1980, ed. Richard Wightman Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears (New York, 1983); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1985); Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (New York, 1989); Richard Tedlow, New and Improved: The Story of Mass Marketing in America (New York, 1990); William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993); T. J. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994). On consumers in Europe, see Rosalind Williams, Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1982); Michael Barry Miller, The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869-1920 (Princeton, N.J., 1981). For recent scholarship on advertising and marketing taking into account technology, gender, and consumers as active agents, see Susan Smulyan, Selling Radio: the Commercialization of American Broadcasting, 1920- 1934 (Washington, D.C., 1994); Carolyn Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption: Home Economics and American Consumers, 1900-1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1994); and Regina Lee Blaszcyk, "Imagining Consumers: Manufacturers and Markets in Ceramics and Glass, 1865-1965" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1995).
220. See Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of Consumer Culture (New York, 1977); T. J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Revolution," The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880-1980, ed. Richard Wightman Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears (New York, 1983); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1985); Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (New York, 1989); Richard Tedlow, New and Improved: The Story of Mass Marketing in America (New York, 1990); William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993); T. J. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994). On consumers in Europe, see Rosalind Williams, Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1982); Michael Barry Miller, The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869-1920 (Princeton, N.J., 1981). For recent scholarship on advertising and marketing taking into account technology, gender, and consumers as active agents, see Susan Smulyan, Selling Radio: the Commercialization of American Broadcasting, 1920- 1934 (Washington, D.C., 1994); Carolyn Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption: Home Economics and American Consumers, 1900-1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1994); and Regina Lee Blaszcyk, "Imagining Consumers: Manufacturers and Markets in Ceramics and Glass, 1865-1965" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1995).
221. See Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of Consumer Culture (New York, 1977); T. J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Revolution," The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880-1980, ed. Richard Wightman Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears (New York, 1983); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1985); Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (New York, 1989); Richard Tedlow, New and Improved: The Story of Mass Marketing in America (New York, 1990); William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993); T. J. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994). On consumers in Europe, see Rosalind Williams, Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1982); Michael Barry Miller, The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869-1920 (Princeton, N.J., 1981). For recent scholarship on advertising and marketing taking into account technology, gender, and consumers as active agents, see Susan Smulyan, Selling Radio: the Commercialization of American Broadcasting, 1920- 1934 (Washington, D.C., 1994); Carolyn Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption: Home Economics and American Consumers, 1900-1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1994); and Regina Lee Blaszcyk, "Imagining Consumers: Manufacturers and Markets in Ceramics and Glass, 1865-1965" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1995).
222. See Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of Consumer Culture (New York, 1977); T. J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Revolution," The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880-1980, ed. Richard Wightman Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears (New York, 1983); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1985); Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (New York, 1989); Richard Tedlow, New and Improved: The Story of Mass Marketing in America (New York, 1990); William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993); T. J. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994). On consumers in Europe, see Rosalind Williams, Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1982); Michael Barry Miller, The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869-1920 (Princeton, N.J., 1981). For recent scholarship on advertising and marketing taking into account technology, gender, and consumers as active agents, see Susan Smulyan, Selling Radio: the Commercialization of American Broadcasting, 1920-1934 (Washington, D.C., 1994); Carolyn Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption: Home Economics and American Consumers, 1900-1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1994); and Regina Lee Blaszcyk, "Imagining Consumers: Manufacturers and Markets in Ceramics and Glass, 1865-1965" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1995).
223. See Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of Consumer Culture (New York, 1977); T. J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Revolution," The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880-1980, ed. Richard Wightman Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears (New York, 1983); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1985); Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (New York, 1989); Richard Tedlow, New and Improved: The Story of Mass Marketing in America (New York, 1990); William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993); T. J. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994). On consumers in Europe, see Rosalind Williams, Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1982); Michael Barry Miller, The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869-1920 (Princeton, N.J., 1981). For recent scholarship on advertising and marketing taking into account technology, gender, and consumers as active agents, see Susan Smulyan, Selling Radio: the Commercialization of American Broadcasting, 1920- 1934 (Washington, D.C., 1994); Carolyn Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption: Home Economics and American Consumers, 1900-1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1994); and Regina Lee Blaszcyk, "Imagining Consumers: Manufacturers and Markets in Ceramics and Glass, 1865-1965" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1995).
224. See Stuart Ewen, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of Consumer Culture (New York, 1977); T. J. Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Revolution," The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880-1980, ed. Richard Wightman Fox and T. J. Jackson Lears (New York, 1983); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1985); Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (New York, 1989); Richard Tedlow, New and Improved: The Story of Mass Marketing in America (New York, 1990); William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993); T. J. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994). On consumers in Europe, see Rosalind Williams, Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1982); Michael Barry Miller, The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869-1920 (Princeton, N.J., 1981). For recent scholarship on advertising and marketing taking into account technology, gender, and consumers as active agents, see Susan Smulyan, Selling Radio: the Commercialization of American Broadcasting, 1920- 1934 (Washington, D.C., 1994); Carolyn Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption: Home Economics and American Consumers, 1900-1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1994); and Regina Lee Blaszcyk, "Imagining Consumers: Manufacturers and Markets in Ceramics and Glass, 1865-1965" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1995).
225. For an overview see Victoria de Grazia and Ellen Furlough, eds., Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective (Berkeley, 1996). For earlier work see William Leach, "Transformations in a Culture of Consumption: Women and Department Stores, 1870-1920," Journal of American History 17 (1984); Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Customers in American Department Stores, 1890-1940 (Urbana, Ill., 1986). See also Dana Frank, Purchasing Power: Consumer Organizing, Gender, and the Seattle Labor Movement, 1919-1929 (Cambridge, 1994); Jackie Dirks, "Righteous Goods: Women's Production, Reform Publicity, and the National Consumers' League, 1891-1919" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1996); Elizabeth White, "Sentimental Enterprise: Sentiment and Profit in American Market Culture, 1830-1880" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1996).
226. For an overview see Victoria de Grazia and Ellen Furlough, eds., Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective (Berkeley, 1996). For earlier work see William Leach, "Transformations in a Culture of Consumption: Women and Department Stores, 1870-1920," Journal of American History 17 (1984); Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Customers in American Department Stores, 1890-1940 (Urbana, Ill., 1986). See also Dana Frank, Purchasing Power: Consumer Organizing, Gender, and the Seattle Labor Movement, 1919-1929 (Cambridge, 1994); Jackie Dirks, "Righteous Goods: Women's Production, Reform Publicity, and the National Consumers' League, 1891-1919" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1996); Elizabeth White, "Sentimental Enterprise: Sentiment and Profit in American Market Culture, 1830-1880" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1996).
227. For an overview see Victoria de Grazia and Ellen Furlough, eds., Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective (Berkeley, 1996). For earlier work see William Leach, "Transformations in a Culture of Consumption: Women and Department Stores, 1870-1920," Journal of American History 17 (1984); Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Customers in American Department Stores, 1890-1940 (Urbana, Ill., 1986). See also Dana Frank, Purchasing Power: Consumer Organizing, Gender, and the Seattle Labor Movement, 1919-1929 (Cambridge, 1994); Jackie Dirks, "Righteous Goods: Women's Production, Reform Publicity, and the National Consumers' League, 1891-1919" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1996); Elizabeth White, "Sentimental Enterprise: Sentiment and Profit in American Market Culture, 1830-1880" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1996).
228. For an overview see Victoria de Grazia and Ellen Furlough, eds., Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective (Berkeley, 1996). For earlier work see William Leach, "Transformations in a Culture of Consumption: Women and Department Stores, 1870-1920," Journal of American History 17 (1984); Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Customers in American Department Stores, 1890-1940 (Urbana, Ill., 1986). See also Dana Frank, Purchasing Power: Consumer Organizing, Gender, and the Seattle Labor Movement, 1919-1929 (Cambridge, 1994); Jackie Dirks, "Righteous Goods: Women's Production, Reform Publicity, and the National Consumers' League, 1891-1919" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1996); Elizabeth White, "Sentimental Enterprise: Sentiment and Profit in American Market Culture, 1830-1880" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1996).
229. For an overview see Victoria de Grazia and Ellen Furlough, eds., Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective (Berkeley, 1996). For earlier work see William Leach, "Transformations in a Culture of Consumption: Women and Department Stores, 1870-1920," Journal of American History 17 (1984); Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Customers in American Department Stores, 1890-1940 (Urbana, Ill., 1986). See also Dana Frank, Purchasing Power: Consumer Organizing, Gender, and the Seattle Labor Movement, 1919-1929 (Cambridge, 1994); Jackie Dirks, "Righteous Goods: Women's Production, Reform Publicity, and the National Consumers' League, 1891-1919" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1996); Elizabeth White, "Sentimental Enterprise: Sentiment and Profit in American Market Culture, 1830-1880" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1996).
230. For an overview see Victoria de Grazia and Ellen Furlough, eds., Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective (Berkeley, 1996). For earlier work see William Leach, "Transformations in a Culture of Consumption: Women and Department Stores, 1870-1920," Journal of American History 17 (1984); Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Customers in American Department Stores, 1890-1940 (Urbana, Ill., 1986). See also Dana Frank, Purchasing Power: Consumer Organizing, Gender, and the Seattle Labor Movement, 1919-1929 (Cambridge, 1994); Jackie Dirks, "Righteous Goods: Women's Production, Reform Publicity, and the National Consumers' League, 1891-1919" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1996); Elizabeth White, "Sentimental Enterprise: Sentiment and Profit in American Market Culture, 1830-1880" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1996).
231. On mediators, see Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption," and her article in this issue. On users see Susan J. Douglas, Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899-1922 (Baltimore, 1987); Claude S. Fischer, America Calling: a Social History of the Telephone to 1940 (Berkeley, 1992); Ronald Kline and Trevor Pinch, "Users as Agents of Technological Change: The Social Construction of the Automobile in the Rural United States," Technology and Culture 37 (1996): 763-795; Madeleine Akrich, "User Representations: Practices, Methods and Sociology," in Managing Technology in Society, ed. Arie Rip, Thomas Misa, and Johan Schot (London, 1995), pp. 167-84; Jellison, Entitled to Power (n. 42 above); Rachel Maines, "Socially Camouflaged Technologies: The Case of the Electromechanical Vibrator" IEEE Technology ana Society Magazine 8 (1989): 3-11. See also Arwen Mohun and Roger Horowitz, eds., His and Hers: Gender, Consumption, and Technology (forthcoming), and Joy Parr's article in this issue.
232. On mediators, see Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption," and her article in this issue. On users see Susan J. Douglas, Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899-1922 (Baltimore, 1987); Claude S. Fischer, America Calling: a Social History of the Telephone to 1940 (Berkeley, 1992); Ronald Kline and Trevor Pinch, "Users as Agents of Technological Change: The Social Construction of the Automobile in the Rural United States," Technology and Culture 37 (1996): 763-795; Madeleine Akrich, "User Representations: Practices, Methods and Sociology," in Managing Technology in Society, ed. Arie Rip, Thomas Misa, and Johan Schot (London, 1995), pp. 167-84; Jellison, Entitled to Power (n. 42 above); Rachel Maines, "Socially Camouflaged Technologies: The Case of the Electromechanical Vibrator" IEEE Technology ana Society Magazine 8 (1989): 3-11. See also Arwen Mohun and Roger Horowitz, eds., His and Hers: Gender, Consumption, and Technology (forthcoming), and Joy Parr's article in this issue.
233. On mediators, see Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption," and her article in this issue. On users see Susan J. Douglas, Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899-1922 (Baltimore, 1987); Claude S. Fischer, America Calling: a Social History of the Telephone to 1940 (Berkeley, 1992); Ronald Kline and Trevor Pinch, "Users as Agents of Technological Change: The Social Construction of the Automobile in the Rural United States," Technology and Culture 37 (1996): 763-795; Madeleine Akrich, "User Representations: Practices, Methods and Sociology," in Managing Technology in Society, ed. Arie Rip, Thomas Misa, and Johan Schot (London, 1995), pp. 167-84; Jellison, Entitled to Power (n. 42 above); Rachel Maines, "Socially Camouflaged Technologies: The Case of the Electromechanical Vibrator" IEEE Technology ana Society Magazine 8 (1989): 3-11. See also Arwen Mohun and Roger Horowitz, eds., His and Hers: Gender, Consumption, and Technology (forthcoming), and Joy Parr's article in this issue.
234. On mediators, see Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption," and her article in this issue. On users see Susan J. Douglas, Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899-1922 (Baltimore, 1987); Claude S. Fischer, America Calling: a Social History of the Telephone to 1940 (Berkeley, 1992); Ronald Kline and Trevor Pinch, "Users as Agents of Technological Change: The Social Construction of the Automobile in the Rural United States," Technology and Culture 37 (1996): 763-795; Madeleine Akrich, "User Representations: Practices, Methods and Sociology," in Managing Technology in Society, ed. Arie Rip, Thomas Misa, and Johan Schot (London, 1995), pp. 167-84; Jellison, Entitled to Power (n. 42 above); Rachel Maines, "Socially Camouflaged Technologies: The Case of the Electromechanical Vibrator" IEEE Technology ana Society Magazine 8 (1989): 3-11. See also Arwen Mohun and Roger Horowitz, eds., His and Hers: Gender, Consumption, and Technology (forthcoming), and Joy Parr's article in this issue.
235. On mediators, see Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption," and her article in this issue. On users see Susan J. Douglas, Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899-1922 (Baltimore, 1987); Claude S. Fischer, America Calling: a Social History of the Telephone to 1940 (Berkeley, 1992); Ronald Kline and Trevor Pinch, "Users as Agents of Technological Change: The Social Construction of the Automobile in the Rural United States," Technology and Culture 37 (1996): 763-795; Madeleine Akrich, "User Representations: Practices, Methods and Sociology," in Managing Technology in Society, ed. Arie Rip, Thomas Misa, and Johan Schot (London, 1995), pp. 167-84; Jellison, Entitled to Power (n. 42 above); Rachel Maines, "Socially Camouflaged Technologies: The Case of the Electromechanical Vibrator" IEEE Technology ana Society Magazine 8 (1989): 3-11. See also Arwen Mohun and Roger Horowitz, eds., His and Hers: Gender, Consumption, and Technology (forthcoming), and Joy Parr's article in this issue.
236. On mediators, see Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption," and her article in this issue. On users see Susan J. Douglas, Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899-1922 (Baltimore, 1987); Claude S. Fischer, America Calling: a Social History of the Telephone to 1940 (Berkeley, 1992); Ronald Kline and Trevor Pinch, "Users as Agents of Technological Change: The Social Construction of the Automobile in the Rural United States," Technology and Culture 37 (1996): 763-795; Madeleine Akrich, "User Representations: Practices, Methods and Sociology," in Managing Technology in Society, ed. Arie Rip, Thomas Misa, and Johan Schot (London, 1995), pp. 167-84; Jellison, Entitled to Power (n. 42 above); Rachel Maines, "Socially Camouflaged Technologies: The Case of the Electromechanical Vibrator" IEEE Technology ana Society Magazine 8 (1989): 3-11. See also Arwen Mohun and Roger Horowitz, eds., His and Hers: Gender, Consumption, and Technology (forthcoming), and Joy Parr's article in this issue.
237. On mediators, see Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption," and her article in this issue. On users see Susan J. Douglas, Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899-1922 (Baltimore, 1987); Claude S. Fischer, America Calling: a Social History of the Telephone to 1940 (Berkeley, 1992); Ronald Kline and Trevor Pinch, "Users as Agents of Technological Change: The Social Construction of the Automobile in the Rural United States," Technology and Culture 37 (1996): 763-795; Madeleine Akrich, "User Representations: Practices, Methods and Sociology," in Managing Technology in Society, ed. Arie Rip, Thomas Misa, and Johan Schot (London, 1995), pp. 167-84; Jellison, Entitled to Power (n. 42 above); Rachel Maines, "Socially Camouflaged Technologies: The Case of the Electromechanical Vibrator" IEEE Technology ana Society Magazine 8 (1989): 3-11. See also Arwen Mohun and Roger Horowitz, eds., His and Hers: Gender, Consumption, and Technology (forthcoming), and Joy Parr's article in this issue.
238. On mediators, see Goldstein, "Mediating Consumption," and her article in this issue. On users see Susan J. Douglas, Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899-1922 (Baltimore, 1987); Claude S. Fischer, America Calling: a Social History of the Telephone to 1940 (Berkeley, 1992); Ronald Kline and Trevor Pinch, "Users as Agents of Technological Change: The Social Construction of the Automobile in the Rural United States," Technology and Culture 37 (1996): 763-795; Madeleine Akrich, "User Representations: Practices, Methods and Sociology," in Managing Technology in Society, ed. Arie Rip, Thomas Misa, and Johan Schot (London, 1995), pp. 167-84; Jellison, Entitled to Power (n. 42 above); Rachel Maines, "Socially Camouflaged Technologies: The Case of the Electromechanical Vibrator" IEEE Technology ana Society Magazine 8 (1989): 3-11. See also Arwen Mohun and Roger Horowitz, eds., His and Hers: Gender, Consumption, and Technology (forthcoming), and Joy Parr's article in this issue.
239. In Culture as History: the Transformation of American Society in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1984), Warren Susman uses the term "culture of production." A framework that takes the culture of production as its point of departure, focusing on the artifact itself, carries implicit gender biases, and misses crucial elements of the story. For an elaboration on this point see Ruth Oldenziel, "Object/ions: Technology, Culture and Gender," Learning from Things, ed. David W. Kingery (Washington, D.C., 1996).
240. In Culture as History: the Transformation of American Society in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1984), Warren Susman uses the term "culture of production." A framework that takes the culture of production as its point of departure, focusing on the artifact itself, carries implicit gender biases, and misses crucial elements of the story. For an elaboration on this point see Ruth Oldenziel, "Object/ions: Technology, Culture and Gender," Learning from Things, ed. David W. Kingery (Washington, D.C., 1996).