The immigrant rights marches of 2006 and the prospects for a new civil rights movement

Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review

Volumn 42, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 99-138

  Johnson, Kevin R ^a,b,c   Hing, Bill Ong ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34047124799     PISSN: 00178039     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (272)

1. See Oscar Avua & Antonio Olivo, A Show of Strength; Thousands March to Loop for Immigrants' Rights, CHI. TRIB., Mar. 11, 2006, at A1;
2. Nathaniel Hoffman, Protest Supports Illegal Workers, CONTRA COSTA TIMES, Mar. 22, 2006 at A1;
3. Mark Johnson & Linda Spice, Thousands March for Immigrants: "A Day Without Latinos" Seeks To Flex Political Muscle in Divisive Debate, MILWAUKEE J. SENTINEL, Mar. 24, 2006, at A1;
4. Teresa Watanabe & Hector Becerra, 500,000 Pack Streets To Protest Immigration Bills, L.A. TIMES, Mar. 26, 2005, at A1.
5. Jessie Mangaliman, Immigration Rights Backers Marching On: Counterprotest Also Set Monday as Both Sides Seek To Send Message to Congress, SAN JOSE MERCURY NEWS, Sept. 2, 2006, at 1B.
6. See Border Games, PITTSBURGH TRIB. REV., Aug. 20, 2006.
7. Tyche Hendricks, Latino Political Clout Grows; Convention a Step Toward Creating National Movement, S.F. CHRON., Sept. 10, 2006, at A17.
8. Michele R. Marcucci & Ryan Sholin, Hundreds March for Immigration Rights, OAKLAND TRIB., Sept. 4, 2006, available at http://www.oaklandtribune.com (search archive for headline).
9. Border Games, supra note 3.
10. See Border Protection, Antiterrorism, and Immigration Control Act of 2005, H.R. 4437, 109th Cong. §§ 203, 205 (2005); see also Allen Thomas O'Rourke, Recent Development, Good Samaritans Beware: The Sensenbrenner-King Bill and Assistance to Undocumented Immigrants, 9 HARV. LATINO L. REV. 195 (2006) (analyzing the possible impact of the Sensenbrenner bill on humanitarian workers).
11. For a useful summary of the myriad immigration reform proposals floated in Congress during the last few years, see BILL ONG HING, DEPORTING OUR SOULS: VALUES, MORALITY, AND IMMIGRATION POLICY 17-38 (2006).
12. See Anna Gorman, Marjorie Miller & Mitchell Landsberg, The May Day Marches; Marchers Fill L.A.'s Streets, L.A. TIMES, May 2, 2006, at A1.
13. See Darryl Fears & N.C. Aizenman, Immigration Rally's Low Turnout Disappoints Advocates, WASH. POST, Sept. 8, 2006, at A6;
14. Daniel González & Monica Alonzo-Dunsmoor, Few at Immigration Rally; Demonstrators Significantly Short of 10,000 Organizers Had Hoped For, ARIZ. REPUBLIC, Sept. 5, 2006, Valley & State Section, at 1;
15. Joe Rodriguez, Low Tally at Immigration Rally: Complacency High, Turnout Low as Congress Stalled on Bill, SAN JOSE MERCURY NEWS, Sept. 5, 2006, at 1A;
16. see also Antonio Olivo, Oscar Avila & Ofelia Casillas, Immigration Rally Draws 10,000, CHI. TRIB., July 20, 2006, at C1 (noting that only 10,000 persons marched in Chicago in July, compared to nearly 500,000 in May).
17. See Editorial, Immigration Reform Suffering Slow Death, SAN ANTONIO EXPRESS-NEWS, Sept. 13, 2006, at 6B.
18. See Secure Fence Act of 2006, Pub. L. No. 109-367, 120 Stat. 2638 (2006).
19. For criticism of current U.S. border enforcement policies and suggestions for reform see, for example, HING, supra note 7; KEVIN R. JOHNSON, OPENING THE FLOODGATES: WHY AMERICA NEEDS TO RETHINK ITS BORDERS AND IMMIGRATION LAW (forthcoming 2007).
20. See infra text accompanying notes 36-43, 101-112, 155-180.
21. See infra text accompanying notes 45-57, 155-179.
22. See infra text accompanying notes 62-100.
23. See infra text accompanying notes 155-180.
24. See infra text accompanying notes 62-89.
25. See infra text accompanying notes 159-163.
26. See Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944) (upholding an exclusion order of persons of Japanese ancestry during World War II). See generally Symposium. Judgments Judged and Wrongs Remembered: Examining the Japanese American Civil Liberties Cases on Their Sixtieth Anniversary, 68 LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS. 1 (2005);
27. Symposium, The Long Shadow of Korematsu, 40 B.C. L. REV. 1, 19 B.C. THIRD WORLD L.J. 1 (1998) (offering a variety of perspectives on the legacy of the internment of persons of Japanese ancestry during World War II).
28. See Kevin R. Johnson, The Struggle for Civil Rights: The Need for, and Impediments to, Political Coalitions Among and Within Minority Groups, 63 LA. L. REV. 759, 762 (2003); see also infra text accompanying notes 160-161 (discussing special registration).
29. See, e.g., Cheryl L. Reed, Monifa Thomas & Dave Newbart, 7,000 March Against War on Mag Mile, CHI. SUN TIMES, Mar. 19, 2006, at A3;
30. World Rallies Against Imperialist Warlords, MORNING STAR (London), Mar. 20, 2006, at 1.
31. See Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act (USA PATRIOT Act), Pub. L. No. 107-56, 115 Stat. 272 (2001). Among others, librarians protested various provisions of the Act. See Alison Leigh Cowan, Connecticut Librarians See Lack of Oversight as Biggest Danger in Antiterror Law, N.Y. TIMES, Sept. 3, 2005, at B5. Due to political pressures based on civil liberties concerns, Congress amended the law before its renewal. See USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act, Pub. L. No. 109-177, 120 Stat. 192 (2006).
32. See Matthew Obernauer, Technology Fueling Growth of Youths' Migration Rallies, AUSTIN AM.-STATESMAN, Apr. 1, 2006, at A1;
33. Krissah Williams & Paul Farhi, Spanish Language Radio's Big Voice, WASH. POST, July 3, 2006, at D1.
34. See Sheryll D. Cashin, The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Coalition Politics, 49 ST. LOUIS U. L.J. 1029, 1036 (2005).
35. See Esther J. Cepeda, UIC Study; May Marchers Mostly U.S. Citizens, CHI. SUN TIMES, July 18, 2006, at 17. A general survey of the UIC study is available at http://texased equity.blogspot.com/2006/07/uic-immigrant-mobilization.html.
36. See supra text accompanying note 8.
37. See Roger Mahony, Called by God to Help, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 22, 2006, at A25.
38. See Fight for Rights; Tens of Thousands March for Immigration Reform, CHI. TRIB., RedEye Edition, Mar. 13, 2006, at 8;
39. James Sterngold, 500,000 Throng L.A. To Protest Immigrant Legislation, S.F. CHRON., Mar. 26, 2006, at A1.
40. Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006, S.B. 2611, 109th Cong. (2006).
41. See, e.g., Nicole Gaouette, Border Bill Takes a Detour: The Senate Moves To Vote on a 700-Mile Fence, But a Farmworker Program Is Now at Issue, L.A. TIMES, Sept. 29, 2006, at A1.
42. See Secure Fence Act of 2006, Pub. L. No. 109-367, 120 Stat. 2638 (2006); Miguel Perez, Election Will Be Vote on Immigration, CHI. SUN TIMES, Oct. 10, 2006, at 29.
43. Of course, under the right circumstances, outbursts of violence protesting social conditions can emerge quickly. Many examples come to mind, including the May 1992 uprising in Los Angeles.
44. See generally Kevin R. Johnson, The End of "Civil Rights" as We Know It?: Immigration and Civil Rights in the New Millennium, 49 UCLA L. REV. 1481 (2002) (contending that, because of demographic and other changes brought by immigration to the United States, the reconceptualization of the civil rights needs of minority communities is necessary).
45. See Kevin R. Johnson, The Case for African American and Latina/o Cooperation in Challenging Racial Profiling in Law Enforcement, 55 FLA. L. REV. 341, 357-63 (2003) [hereinafter Johnson, African American and Latina/o Cooperation];
46. see also Kevin R. Johnson, Civil Rights and Immigration: Challenges for the Latino Community in the Twenty-First Century, 8 LA RAZA L.J. 42, 57-63 (1995) (analyzing immigration as a possible dividing line between Latina/os and African Americans).
47. See Teresa Watanabe, Immigrant Crusade Enlists Few Blacks, L.A. TIMES, Apr. 10, 2006, at A1.
48. See Kevin R. Johnson, Hurricane Katrina: Lessons About Immigrants in the Modern Administrative State, 45 HOUS. L. REV. (forthcoming 2008).
49. For a thoughtful analysis of the attribution of blame for the federal government's response to Hurricane Katrina, see Jon Hanson & Kathleen Hanson, The Blame Frame: Justifying (Racial) Injustice in America, 41 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 413, 447-78 (2006).
50. See, e.g., JOHN HIGHAM, STRANGERS IN THE LAND: PATTERNS OF AMERICAN NATIVISM 1860-1925 (3d ed. 1994) (analyzing the nativist outburst following World War I);
51. RONALD TAKAKI, STRANGERS FROM A DIFFERENT SHORE (rev. ed. 1998) (analyzing harsh treatment afforded various Asian immigrants by the U.S. government);
52. Kevin R. Johnson, The Anti-terrorism Act, The Immigration Reform Act, and Ideological Regulation in the Immigration Laws: Important Lessons for Citizens and Noncitizens, 28 ST. MARY'S L.J. 833 (1997) (reviewing the exclusion and removal of political dissidents by the U.S. government, which has historically worsened in times of social stress).
53. See John M. Broder, Amid Criticism of Federal Efforts, Charges of Racism Are Lodged, N.Y. TIMES, Sept. 5, 2005, at A9;
54. Elisabeth Bumiller, Gulf Coast Isn't the Only Thing Left in Tatters; Bush's Status with Blacks Takes a Hit, N.Y. TIMES, Sept. 12, 2005, at A17;
55. Laura Washington, Editorial, When Legitimate Questions About Race and Class Arise, They Are Dismissed as Irrelevant, CHI. SUN TIMES, Sept. 12, 2005, at 57.
56. See Grace Kao, Where Are the Asian and Hispanic Victims of Katrina?: A Metaphor for Invisible Minorities in Contemporary Racial Discourse, 3 DU BOIS REV. 223 (2006).
57. See id. at 225-26.
58. See Johnson, supra note 36.
59. See Dick Rogers, Editorial, "Refugees" Kicks Up a Storm, S.F. CHRON., Sept. 12, 2005, at B7;
60. Ruth Walker, Coming to Terms with Katrina's Diaspora, CHRISTIAN SCI. MONITOR, Sept. 21, 2005, The Home Forum Section, at 18;
61. Mike Pesca, Are Katrina's Victims 'Refugees' or 'Evacuees?,' NAT'L PUB. RADIO, Sept. 5, 2005, http://www.npr.org/ templates/story/story.php?storyId=4833613.
62. Peter Pae, Immigrants Rush to New Orleans as Contractors Fight for Workers. L.A. TIMES, Oct. 10, 2005, at C1 (quoting Mayor Ray Nagin).
63. See Census Report: Broad Racial Disparities Persist: Differences in Income, Education, Homeownership Continue, Data Finds, MSNBC.COM, Nov. 14, 2006, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15704759/.
64. See Aurelio Rojas, Blacks, Latinos Try To Find Unity in L.A., SACRAMENTO BEE, July 23, 2006, at A1.
65. See NICOLÁS C. VACA, THE PRESUMED ALLIANCE: THE UNSPOKEN CONFLICT BETWEEN LATINOS AND BLACKS AND WHAT IT MEANS FOR AMERICA (2004);
66. see also NEITHER ENEMIES NOR FRIENDS: LATINOS, BLACKS, AFRO-LATINOS (Anani Dzidzienyo & Suzanne Oboler eds., 2005) (collecting essays on relationship between African Americans and Latina/os).
67. See, e.g., VERNON M. BRIGGS, JR., MASS IMMIGRATION AND THE NATIONAL INTEREST: POLICY DIRECTIONS FOR THE NEW CENTURY (3d ed. 2003) (evaluating U.S. immigration from an economic policy perspective); Jack Miles, Blacks vs. Browns, THE ATLANTIC, Oct. 1992, at 41.
68. See VACA, supra note 46, at 85-168; Deborah Ramirez, Multicultural Empowerment: It's Not Just Black and White Anymore, 47 STAN. L. REV. 957, 969-71 (1995).
69. See, e.g., Megan Garvey, L.A. County Targets Racial Gang War, L.A. TIMES, Dec. 17, 2005, at B4;
70. Charles Ornstein, Another Inmate Dies in Racial Fighting, L.A. TIMES, Feb. 13, 2006, at A1.
71. See Taunya Lovell Banks, Mestizaje and the Mexican Mestizo Self: No Hay Sangre Negra, There Is No Blackness, 15 S. CAL. INTERDISC. L.J. 199 (2006);
72. see also Tanya Katerí Hernández, 'Too Black to Be Latino/a:' Blackness and Blacks as Foreigners in Latino Studies, 1 LATINO STUD. 152, 157 (2003) (contending that coalitional politics cannot work until scholars discuss racism of Latina/os toward African Americans).
73. See Banks, supra note 50, at 227.
74. See Joe Mozingo, 4 Latino Gang Members Are Convicted of Anti-Black Plot, L.A. TIMES, Aug. 2, 2006, at B1.
75. Toni Morrison, On the Backs of Blacks, in ARGUING IMMIGRATION: THE DEBATE OVER THE CHANGING FACE OF AMERICA 97 (Nicolaus Mills ed., 1994);
76. see also Devon W. Carbado, Racial Naturalization, 57 AM. Q. 633 (2005) (analyzing how immigrants learn and acclimate to racism in the United States).
77. See generally Kevin R. Johnson, "Melting Pot" or "Ring of Fire"?: Assimilation and the Mexican-American Experience, 85 CAL. L. REV. 1259 (1997) (analyzing assimilation of Mexican Americans into mainstream U.S. society).
78. See, e.g., VACA, supra note 46, at 140 (quoting the African American mayor of a town in the greater Los Angeles area, claiming that Latina/os could not be given political representation because noncitizens cannot vote).
79. For background, see Matt Stiles & Mike Glenn, Debate Flares Anew on HPD's Immigrant Policy, HOUS. CHRON., Sept. 26, 2006, at B1.
80. See Rosanna Ruiz, Widow Speaks Out Against Reprisal: She Says Slain Officer Would Not Want Retaliation Against Hispanics, HOUS. CHRON., Sept. 27, 2006, at B5.
81. See Sale v. Haitian Ctrs. Council Inc., 509 U.S. 155 (1993) (upholding the U.S. government's policy of interdicting Haitians on high seas and repatriating them to Haiti); Brief for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, TransAfrica, and the Congressional Black Caucus as Amici Curiae in Support of Respondents at 6, Sale v. Haitian Ctrs. Council Inc., 509 U.S. 155 (1993) (No. 92-344) (arguing that the U.S. government had a "separate and unequal asylum program" for Haitians). See generally Kevin R. Johnson, Judicial Acquiescence to the Executive Branch's Pursuit of Foreign Policy and Domestic Agendas in Immigration Matters: The Case of the Haitian Asylum-Seekers, 7 GEO. IMMIGR. L.J. 1 (1993) (analyzing, among other factors, the role of race in the U.S. government's treatment of Haitian asylum-seekers);
82. Charles J. Ogletree, Jr., America's Schizophrenic Immigration Policy: Race, Class, and Reason, 41 B.C. L. REV. 755 (2000).
83. See Antonio Olivo & Oscar Avila, United They March; Hundreds of Thousands Rally for Immigration Rights, CHI. TRIB., May 2, 2006, at C1 (reporting that Senator Obama spoke to marchers).
84. See William R. Tamayo, When the "Coloreds" Are Neither Black Nor Citizens: The United States Civil Rights Movement and Global Migration, 2 ASIAN L.J. 1 (1995) (contending that the traditional civil rights community should embrace the struggle of immigrants because of their common experience with racial discrimination).
85. For criticism of the border enforcement operations, which have resulted in thousands of deaths but have failed to put much of a dent into undocumented immigration, see TIMOTHY J. DUNN, THE MILITARIZATION OF THE U.S.-MEXICO BORDER, 1978-1992: LOW INTENSITY CONFLICT DOCTRINE COMES HOME (1996).
86. See also JOSEPH NEVINS, OPERATION GATEKEEPER: THE RISE OF THE "ILLEGAL ALIEN" AND THE MAKING OF THE U.S.-MEXICO BOUNDARY (2002);
87. Wayne A. Cornelius, Death at the Border: Efficacy and Unintended Consequences of U.S. Immigration Control Policy, 27 POPULATION & DEV. REV. 661 (2001);
88. Karl Eschbach et al., Death at the Border, 33 INT'L MIGRATION REV. 430 (1999);
89. Bill Ong Hing, The Dark Side of Operation Gatekeeper, 7 U.C. DAVIS J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 121, 123 (2001);
90. Guillermo Alonso Meneses, Human Rights and Undocumented Migration Along the Mexican-US. Border, 51 UCLA L. REV. 267 (2003);
91. Jorge A. Vargas, U.S. Border Patrol Abuses, Undocumented Mexican Workers, and International Human Rights, 2 SAN DIEGO INT'L L.J. 1 (2001);
92. Karl Eschbach, Jacqueline Hagan & Nestor Rodriguez, Causes and Trends in Migrant Deaths Along the U.S./Mexico Border, 1985-1998 (Univ. of Houston, Ctr. for Immigration Research, Working Paper No. 01-4, 2001), available at http://www.uh.edu/cir/Causes_and_Trends.pdf (analyzing the effects of the intensification of border enforcement).
93. See, e.g., ALDON D. MORRIS, THE ORIGINS OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT: BLACK COMMUNITIES ORGANIZING FOR CHANGE (1984) (lauding the development of the civil rights movement and its success in the 1950s and early 1960s).
94. See, e.g., RICHARD KLUGER, SIMPLE JUSTICE: THE HISTORY OF BROWN v. BOARD OF EDUCATION AND BLACK AMERICA'S STRUGGLE FOR EQUALITY (rev. & expanded ed. 2004);
95. MARK V. TUSHNET, THE NAACP'S STRATEGY AGAINST SEGREGATED EDUCATION, 1925-1950 (rev. ed. 2006).
96. For discussion of the role of whites in the civil rights movement, see JACK GREENBERG, CRUSADERS IN THE COURTS: HOW A DEDICATED BAND OF LAWYERS FOUGHT FOR THE CIVIL RIGHTS REVOLUTION 285-98 (1994).
97. See, e.g., KLUGER, supra note 63; see also Johnson, supra note 34, at 55-56 (analyzing a mix of political and legal strategies necessary for achieving social change); Kevin R. Johnson, Lawyering for Social Change: What's a Lawyer To Do?, 5 MICH. J. RACE & L. 201 (1999) (outlining the attorney's role in seeking social change).
98. See, e.g., Kimberle Williams Crenshaw, Race, Reform, and Retrenchment: Transformation and Legitimation in Antidiscrimination Law, 101 HARV. L. REV. 1331 (1988).
99. See, e.g., Juan F. Perea, The Black/White Binary Paradigm of Race: The "Normal Science" of American Racial Thought, 85 CAL. L. REV. 1213 (1997) (discussing the view of minority groups outside of the black-white paradigm);
100. Richard Delgado, Rodrigo's Fifteenth Chronicle: Racial Mixture, Latino Critical Scholarship, and the Black-White Binary, 75 TEX. L. REV. 1181 (1997) (book review).
101. Japanese Americans, victims of internment during World War II, embraced the civil rights movement. For example, Yuri Kochiyama and her husband moved to Harlem to aid in the movement. She was in the Audubon Ballroom the day Malcolm X was assassinated and held him in her arms as he lay dying. See Yuri Kochiyama: With Justice in Her Heart, REVOLUTIONARY WORKER, Dec. 13, 1998, available at http://revcom.us/a/v20/980- 89/986/yuri.htm.
102. Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 Amendments, Pub. L. No. 89-236, 79 Stat. 911 (1965);
103. see also Gabriel J. Chin, The Civil Rights Revolution Comes to Immigration Law: A New Look at the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, 75 N.C. L. REV. 273 (1996) (analyzing impact of the Act).
104. Pub. L. No. 89-110, 79 Stat. 437 (1965).
105. See League of United Latin Am. Citizens v. Perry, 126 S. Ct. 2594 (2006) (addressing voting rights claims of Mexican Americans in Texas); Georgia v. Ashcroft, 539 U.S. 461 (2003) (holding that spreading black voters across several congressional districts does not violate Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act); see also Glenn D. Magpantay, Asian American Access to the Vote: The Language Assistance Provisions (Section 203) of the Voting Rights Act and Beyond, 11 ASIAN L.J. 31 (2004) (analyzing how language provisions of Voting Rights Act protect language minorities, including Asian Americans).
106. See RODOLFO ACUÑA, OCCUPIED AMERICA: A HISTORY OF CHICANOS 307-62 (3d ed. 1988); F. ARTURO ROSALES, ¡CHICANO! THE HISTORY OF THE MEXICAN AMERICAN CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT (1996).
107. See, e.g., GERALD N. ROSENBERG, THE HOLLOW HOPE: CAN COURTS BRING ABOUT SOCIAL CHANGE? (1991); GIRARDEAU A. SPANN, RACE AGAINST THE COURT (1993).
108. For analysis of the complexities of coalition politics in the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the need for multiracial coalitions to secure social change today, see Cashin, supra note 24.
109. See LANI GUINIER & GERALD TORRES, THE MINER'S CANARY: ENLISTING RACE, RESISTING POWER, TRANSFORMING DEMOCRACY (2002);
110. see also ERIC K. YAMAMOTO, INTERRACIAL JUSTICE: CONFLICT AND RECONCILIATION IN POST CIVIL RIGHTS AMERICA (1999);
111. Charles R. Lawrence III, Race, Multiculturalism, and the Jurisprudence of Transformation, 47 STAN. L. REV. 819 (1995);
112. George A. Martinez, African-Americans, Latinos, and the Construction of Race: Toward an Epistemic Coalition, 19 UCLA CHICANO- LATINO L. REV. 213 (1998) (contending that an intellectual coalition was necessary to consider racial subordination of all minority groups);
113. Victor C. Romero, Rethinking Minority Coalition Building: Valuing Self-Sacrifice, Stewardship and Anti-Subordination, 50 VILL. L. REV. 823 (2005) (offering thoughts on the efficacy of multiracial coalitions);
114. Francisco Valdes, Under Construction - LatCrit Consciousness, Community, and Theory, 85 CAL. L. REV. 1087, 1094 (1997);
115. Robert A. Williams, Jr., Linking Arms Together: Multicultural Constitutionalism in a North American Indigenous Vision of Law and Peace, 82 CAL. L. REV. 981 (1994).
116. See Taunya Lovell Banks, Both Edges of the Margin: Blacks and Asians in Mississippi Masala, Barriers to Coalition Building, 5 ASIAN L.J. 7 (1998);
117. Cheryl I. Harris, Mining in Hard Ground, 116 HARV. L. REV. 2487 (2003) (book review).
118. Angela P. Harris, The Jurisprudence of Reconstruction, 82 CAL. L. REV. 741. 784 (1994).
119. See Haunani-Kay Trask, Coalition-Building Between Natives and Non-Natives, 43 STAN. L. REV. 1197 (1991) (questioning broad-based coalitions between minorities and whites);
120. Richard Delgado, Linking Arms: Recent Books on Interracial Coalition as an Avenue of Social Reform, 88 CORNELL L. REV. 855, 856 (2003) (book review) (criticizing the "preoccupation with interracial coalition");
121. see also STOKELY CARMICHAEL & CHARLES V. HAMILTON, BLACK POWER: THE POLITICS OF LIBERATION IN AMERICA 58-84 (1967) (questioning the efficacy of black/white coalitions in the civil rights movement); VACA, supra note 46 (questioning the "presumed alliance" between Latina/os and African Americans). Although today he is unquestionably in the anticoalition camp, influential Critical Race Theorist Richard Delgado previously appeared more open to the pursuit of political coalitions.
122. See Richard Delgado, Derrick Bell's Toolkit - Fit to Dismantle That Famous House?, 75 N.Y.U. L. REV. 283, 302-06 (2000) (recognizing the success of past multiracial coalitions but seeing various impediments to future coalition building);
123. Richard Delgado, Rodrigo's Tenth Chronicle: Merit and Affirmative Action, 83 GEO. L.J. 1711, 1746-47 (1995) (mentioning a possible coalition of poor whites and racial minorities in support of affirmative action).
124. See Delgado, Linking Arms, supra note 77, at 884.
125. See Derrick A. Bell, Jr., Brown v. Board of Education and the Interest-Convergence Dilemma, 93 HARV. L. REV. 518 (1980).
126. See generally MARY DUDZIAK, COLD WAR CIVIL RIGHTS: RACE AND THE IMAGE OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY (2000) (analyzing the foreign-relations impetus for ending the segregation of African Americans in the United States).
127. See Johnson, supra note 20, at 771-76.
128. See Kevin R. Johnson & George A. Martínez, Discrimination by Proxy: The Case of Proposition 227 and the Ban on Bilingual Education, 33 U.C DAVIS L. REV. 1227 (2000) (analyzing the use of facially neutral characteristics, such as language and immigration status, to effectively discriminate on the basis of race and national origin);
129. Camille Gear Rich, Performing Racial and Ethnic Identity: Discrimination by Proxy and the Future of Title VII, 79 N.Y.U. L. REV. 1134 (2004) (making a similar argument under Title VII);
130. see also Angela Onwuachi-Willig & Mario L. Barnes, By Any Other Name?: On Being "Regarded As" Black, and Why Title VII Should Apply Even if Lakisha and Jamal Are White, 2005 WIS. L. REV. 1283, 1285-86, 1297-1312 (claiming that "in many instances, employers rely on proxies for race, national origin, sex, religion, or age" in employment decisions and reviewing examples of discrimination based on name and voice as proxies for minority status).
131. Hispanic Population Reaches All-Time High of 38.8 Million, New Census Bureau Estimates Show, U.S. Census Bureau News, June 18, 2003, http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/ hispanic_origin_population/001130.html.
132. For analysis of how immigration reform led to an increase in immigration from Asia, see BILL ONG HING, MAKING AND REMAKING ASIAN AMERICA THROUGH IMMIGRATION POLICY, 1850-1990 (1993); Chin, supra note 68.
133. Hispanic Population Reaches All-Time High of 38.8 Million, New Census Bureau Estimates Show, supra note 83.
134. See Johnson, supra note 33, at 1491-1510.
135. See generally MARCO G. PROUTY, CÉSAR CHÁVEZ, THE CATHOLIC BISHOPS, AND THE FARMWORKERS' STRUGGLE FOR SOCIAL JUSTICE (2006) (documenting the role of the Catholic Church in the farmworkers' quest for justice).
136. See generally JAMES ALLEN, WITHOUT SANCTUARY: LYNCHING PHOTOGRAPHY IN AMERICA (2000) (collecting photographs of lynchings in the United States);
137. Lynching, Racial Violence, and Law, in 9 RACE, LAW, AND AMERICAN HISTORY 1700-1990: LYNCHING, RACIAL VIOLENCE, AND LAW (Paul Finkelmen ed., 1992) (analyzing the history of lynching);
138. David Garland, Penal Excess and Surplus Meaning: Public Torture Lynchings in Twentieth-Century America, 39 LAW & SOC'Y REV. 793 (2005) (analyzing the history of public lynchings in communities across the United States).
139. 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
140. Jack M. Balkin, What Brown Teaches Us About Constitutional Theory, 90 VA. L. REV. 1537, 1546-47 (2004) (emphasis added);
141. see Jack M. Balkin, How Social Movements Change (or Fail To Change) the Constitution: The Case of the New Departure, 39 SUFFOLK U. L. REV. 27 (2005);
142. see also Reva B. Siegel, Constitutional Culture, Social Movement Conflict and Constitutional Change: The Case of the De Facto ERA, 94 CAL. L. REV. 1323, 1323 (2006) (contending that "[s]ocial movements change the ways Americans understand the Constitution").
143. See, e.g., KLUGER, supra note 63; see also JOEL F. HANDLER, SOCIAL MOVEMENTS AND THE LEGAL SYSTEM: A THEORY OF LAW REFORM AND SOCIAL CHANGE (1978) (discussing the courts and social change);
144. MICHAEL J. KLARMAN, FROM JIM CROW TO CIVIL RIGHTS: THE SUPREME COURT AND THE STRUGGLE FOR RACIAL EQUALITY (2004); ROSENBERG, supra note 72;
145. SPANN, supra note 72; Cass R. Sunstein, Three Civil Rights Fallacies, 79 CAL. L. REV. 751, 765-69 (1991) (criticizing over-reliance on the courts as agents for change).
146. See generally LUCAS A. POWE, JR., THE WARREN COURT AND AMERICAN POLITICS (2000); MARK V. TUSHNET, THE WARREN COURT IN HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE (1993);
147. Symposium, The Jurisprudential Legacy of the Warren Court, 59 WASH. & LEE L. REV. 1055 (2002).
148. See MARK TUSHNET, MAKING CONSTITUTIONAL LAW: THURGOOD MARSHALL AND THE SUPREME COURT, 1961-1991 (1997) (analyzing Thurgood Marshall's impact on the evolution of constitutional law).
149. See VACA, supra note 46, at 62-84.
150. See Carlos K. Blanton, George I. Sánchez, Ideology, and Whiteness in the Making of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement, 1930-1960, 72 J. S. HIST. 569, 571-603 (2006).
151. 161 F.2d 774 (9th Cir. 1947).
152. See id. at 780 (considering the arguments made in amicus curiae briefs). For a description of Mendez's impact, see George A. Martínez, Legal Indeterminacy, Judicial Discretion and the Mexican-American Litigation Experience: 1930-1980, 27 U.C. DAVIS L. REV. 555, 577-78 (1994).
153. Pub. L. No. 88-352, 78 Stat. 241 (1964).
154. Pub. L. No. 89-110, 79 Stat. 437 (1965).
155. Pub. L. No. 90-284, 82 Stat. 81 (1968).
156. See Johnson, African American and Latina/o Cooperation, supra note 34, at 353-57.
157. See supra text accompanying notes 25-28.
158. See Vanessa Hua, Amnesty Touches Home for Bay Area Asians, S.F. CHRON., May 18, 2006, at A1.
159. See Watanabe, supra note 35. Immigrant activists have reached out to African Americans in an attempt to forge a common agenda. See Jennifer Ludden, Immigrant Rights Advocates Prod U.S. Blacks, NAT'L PUB. RADIO, Apr. 13, 2006, http://www.npr.org/ templates/story.php?storyID=5341040.
160. See Teresa Watanabe, Immigration Forum Gets Intense; A Discussion at L.A.'s Leimert Park About Illegal Migrants and Their Impact on Blacks Escalates into a Shouting Match over Jobs, Housing and Schools, L.A. TIMES, Apr. 24, 2006, at B3.
161. Thelma Guerrero, African-American Groups Join Immigration Debate; Some Argue that Illegal Immigrants Steal Opportunities, STATESMAN J. (Salem, Or.), July 24, 2006, at 2C.
162. See Mexican Leader Criticized for Comment on Blacks, CNN.COM, May 15, 2005, http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/05/14/fox.jackson/ index.html.
163. Rene P. Ciria-Cruz, Activists Must Avoid Cultural Tripwires over Immigration, NEW AMERICAN MEDIA, June 1, 2006, http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html? article_id= c18d2713fa49471adc89cdb7cb0fb3b8.
164. See Emmett D. Carson, The Black and Brown Divide: What Is It, What's Causing It and What Can Philanthropy Do About It, 2 PERSPECTIVES 1 (Grantmakers Concerned with Immigrants and Refugees, Sebastopol, Ca.), Spring 2006, at 5-6.
165. See Young Still Under Fire, JAMAICA GLEANER, Aug. 23, 2006, available at http://www.jamaicagleaner.com/gleaner/ 20060823/business/business12.html.
166. In the words of Bishop Edward Turner, an African American minister and founder of Power of Love Christian Fellowship: "We need to sit down and come up with a plan that supports African Americans and Latinos." Rojas, supra note 45.
167. See Alan Jenkins, African Americans Have a Stake in Supporting Immigrants' Rights, THE OPPORTUNITY AGENDA, http://www.opportunityagenda.org/site/cmwL5Kk N0LvH/b.1406079/apps/s/content. asp?ct=2195541 (last visited Nov. 29, 2006).
168. Alan Jenkins, Natural Allies on Immigration, PHILA. INQUIRER, Apr. 19, 2006, at A15 (emphasis added).
169. Jenkins, supra note 112.
170. Id.
171. Id.
172. Keeanga-Yamahtta Taylor, Blacks, Latinos and the New Civil Rights Movement, COUNTERPUNCH, May 9, 2006, http://counterpunch.org/ taylor05082006.html.
173. Chris Zepeda-Millan, Black Civil Rights, Immigrant Human Rights, and the Next Great American Social Movement, CÉSAR E. CHÁVEZ FOUND., http://www.chavezfoundation. org/ir-1.html (last visited Nov. 29, 2006) (paraphrasing a speech by Cornell West at Cornell University in March 2006).
174. Id.
175. See SAMUEL P. HUNTINGTON, WHO ARE WE?: CHALLENGES TO AMERICA'S NATIONAL IDENTITY (2005).
176. But see Kevin R. Johnson & Bill Ong Hing, National Identity in a Multicultural Nation: The Challenge of Immigration Law and Immigrants, 103 MICH. L. REV. 1347 (2005) (book review).
177. See PATRICK J. BUCHANAN, STATE OF EMERGENCY: THE THIRD WORLD INVASION AND CONQUEST OF AMERICA (2006).
178. See PETER BRIMELOW, ALIEN NATION (1995).
179. For a scathing critique, see Peter H. Schuck, Alien Rumination, 105 YALE L.J. 1963 (1996) (book review).
180. Zepeda-Millan, supra note 118 (emphasis added).
181. Andre Banks, The Price of the Ticket, APPLIED RESEARCH CTR., http://www.arc.org/content/view/432 (last visited Nov. 29, 2006);
182. see also Mary Sarah Bilder, The Struggle over Immigration: Indentured Servants, Slaves, and Articles of Commerce, 61 MO. L. REV. 743 (1996) (analyzing the legal history of slave migration to the United States).
183. Banks, supra note 124 (emphasis added).
184. See PROUTY, supra note 87.
185. Michael J. Piore, Can International Migration Be Controlled?, in ESSAYS ON LEGAL AND ILLEGAL IMMIGRATION 21, 39 (Susan Pozo ed., 1986).
186. See Guerrero, supra note 106.
187. See ROBERT T. AVERITT, THE DUAL ECONOMY: THE DYNAMICS OF AMERICAN INDUSTRY STRUCTURE (1968).
188. The labor market is divided into primary jobs and secondary jobs. The first group is largely populated by native workers, the latter by migrants. Primary sector jobs are situated in so-called "core" industries, in which investments and financing of production are relatively high, which are mainly large scale and unionized, and in which market features, such as a lack of competition, have minimized instability. Workers who fill such jobs must have relatively high skills. They are well paid and work under generally desirable conditions. In contrast, secondary jobs are found in smaller firms where production is not as highly financed and products face highly competitive markets. Positions tend to be unstable, low- or unskilled, relatively low paying, and generally marked by undesirable working conditions. See MICHAEL J. PIORE, BIRDS OF PASSAGE 15-49 (1979).
189. See BILL ONG HING, TO BE AN AMERICAN: CULTURAL PLURALISM AND THE RHETORIC OF ASSIMILATION 54-56 (1997).
190. See generally DAVID W. ENGSTROM, PRESIDENTIAL DECISION MAKING ADRIFT: THE CARTER ADMINISTRATION AND THE MARIEL BOATLIFT (1997) (analyzing the decision of the United States to admit Cuban migrants in 1980).
191. See David Card, The Impact of the Mariel Boatlift on the Miami Labor Market, 43 INDUS. & LAB. REL. REV. 245, 245-46 (1990).
192. Id. at 249-50.
193. See Paul Ong & Abel Valenzuela, Jr., Job Competition Between Immigrants and African Americans, in DOUBLE EXPOSURE: POVERTY & RACE IN AMERICA 117 (Chester Hartman ed., 1996).
194. See Robert Aponte, Ethnicity and Male Employment in the Inner City: A Test of Two Theories, 8, 20-21, 25, 27, 34-35 (The Julian Samora Research Inst., Mich. State Univ., Working Paper No. 14, 1992), available at http://www.jsri.msu.edu/RandS/research/wps/wp14.pdf.
195. Id. at 40-42.
196. Others have contended that it is nearly impossible to close the borders at this time in U.S. history. See generally JOHNSON, supra note 12 (outlining arguments for more open borders based on the economic, social, and political factors that contribute to immigration).
197. Roger Waldinger, Who Makes the Beds? Who Washes the Dishes? Black/Immigrant Competition Reassessed, in IMMIGRANTS AND IMMIGRATION POLICY: INDIVIDUAL SKILLS, FAMILY TIES, AND GROUP IDENTITIES 265, 280 (Harriet Orcutt Duleep & Phanindra V. Wunnava eds., 1996).
198. Id. at 266 (citing Joleen Kirschenman & Kathryn M. Neckerman, "We'd Love to Hire Them, But . . .": The Meaning of Race for Employers, in THE URBAN UNDERCLASS 203-34 (Christopher Jencks & Paul E. Peterson eds., 1991)).
199. See U.S. DEP'T OF LABOR, THE EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION ON THE U.S. ECONOMY AND LABOR MARKET 131-36 (1989).
200. See id. at 6, 76-77; see also Ong & Valenzuela, supra note 134.
201. We are, of course, well aware of the long history of exclusion of African Americans from unions. See, e.g., David Bernstein, The Davis-Bacon Act: Let's Bring Jim Crow to an End (Cato Institute, Briefing Paper No. 17, 1993), available at http://cato.org/pub_display. php?pub_id= 1458&print=Y&full=1.
202. See HING, supra note 130, at 59-64.
203. See Christopher David Ruiz Cameron, The Labyrinth of Solidarity: Why the Future of the American Labor Movement Depends on Latino Workers, 53 U. MIAMI L. REV. 1089, 1091, 1111-14 (1999) (discussing successful efforts to organize immigrant workers, including the Janitors for Justice campaign in Los Angeles);
204. Ruben J. Garcia, Across the Borders: Immigrant Status and Identity in Law and LatCrit Theory, 55 FLA. L. REV. 511, 525-30 (2003) (same).
205. See generally FRANCIS FOX PIVENS & RICHARD A. CLOWARD, POOR PEOPLE'S MOVEMENTS: WHY THEY SUCCEED, HOW THEY FAIL (1977) (analyzing the success of social movements by the poor).
206. See supra text accompanying note 66.
207. See supra text accompanying notes 67, 73.
208. See SUCHENG CHAN, ASIAN AMERICANS: AN INTERPRETIVE HISTORY 181 (1991).
209. See E-mail from Cecilia Muñoz, Vice President, Office of Research, Advocacy, & Legislation, Nat'l Council of La Raza, to Bill Ong Hing, Professor of Law & Asian Am. Studies, Univ. of Ca. Davis (Sept. 25, 2006, 09:01:38 EST) (on file with author).
210. See supra text accompanying notes 24-25.
211. See supra text accompanying notes 87-89.
212. See ACUÑA, supra note 71, at 430-37.
213. See Mahony, supra note 27.
214. See Tal Abbady, Bill Would Punish Those Who Help Immigrants: Religious Leaders Outraged by Proposal, SUN-SENTINEL (Fort Lauderdale, Fla.), Mar. 23, 2006, at 1A.
215. See supra text accompanying notes 91-93.
216. As one commentator observed: It used to be easy. Liberals generally liked the U.S. Supreme Court. Conservatives were skeptical. Liberals liked the Court because of decisions under Chief Justice Earl Warren such as Brown v. Board of Education . . . . [H]owever, . . . as Bob Dylan sang, "The times they are a-changin." Indeed the political stereotypes . . . have not held true for some time.
217. Mark S. Kende, Foreword, Constitutional Law Symposium: The Role of Courts in Social Change, 54 DRAKE L. REV. 791 (2006) (footnotes omitted).
218. See infra note 159 (citing cases rejecting Bush administration's "war on terror" measures); see also Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558 (2003) (invalidating as unconstitutional the Texas sodomy statute); Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 (2003) (upholding University of Michigan Law School's race-conscious admissions program).
219. See infra text accompanying notes 162-171 (discussing President Bush's conservative judicial nominations).
220. See, e.g., Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 126 S. Ct. 2749 (2006) (holding that military tribunals created by the Bush administration were not expressly authorized by any congressional act, violated the Uniform Code of Military Justice, and did not satisfy the Geneva Conventions); Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507 (2004) (holding that a U.S. citizen held as an "enemy combatant" had the right to a hearing to challenge that classification); Rumsfeld v. Padilla, 542 U.S. 426 (2004) (finding that the court in which the action was filed lacked jurisdiction to entertain a challenge to the detention of a U.S. citizen classified as an "enemy combatant").
221. See Susan M. Akram & Kevin R. Johnson, Race, Civil Rights, and Immigration Law After September 11, 2001: The Targeting of Arabs and Muslims, 58 N.Y.U. ANN. SURV. AM. L. 295 (2002);
222. Sameer M. Ashar, Immigration Enforcement and Subordination: The Consequences of Racial Profiling After September 11, 34 CONN. L. REV. 1185 (2002);
223. David Cole, Enemy Aliens, 54 STAN. L. REV. 953 (2002);
224. Bill Ong Hing, Vigilante Racism: The De-Americanization of Immigrant America, 7 MICH. J. RACE & L. 441 (2002);
225. Victor C. Romero, Decoupling "Terrorist" From "Immigrant:" An Enhanced Role for the Federal Courts Post 9/11, 7 J. GENDER RACE & JUST. 201 (2003);
226. Leti Volpp, The Citizen and the Terrorist, 49 UCLA L. REV. 1575 (2002).
227. Many reports document the civil and human rights abuses in the "war on terror." See, e.g., MIGRATION POL'Y INST., AMERICA'S CHALLENGE: DOMESTIC SECURITY, CIVIL LIBERTIES, AND NATIONAL UNITY AFTER SEPTEMBER 11 (2003);
228. U.S. OFFICE OF THE INSPECTOR GEN., DEP'T OF JUSTICE, THE SEPTEMBER 11 DETAINEES: A REVIEW OF THE TREATMENT OF ALIENS HELD ON IMMIGRATION CHARGES IN CONNECTION WITH THE INVESTIGATION OF THE SEPTEMBER 11 ATTACKS (2003), available at http://www.usdoj.gov/oig/special/0306/full/pdf;
229. OFFICE OF THE INSPECTOR GEN., U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE, SUPPLEMENTAL REPORT ON SEPTEMBER 11 DETAINEES' ALLEGATIONS OF ABUSE AT THE METROPOLITAN DETENTION CENTER IN BROOKLYN, NEW YORK (2003), available at http://www.usdoj.gov/oig/special/0312/final.pdf.
230. See Kevin R. Johnson, September 11 and Mexican Immigrants: Collateral Damage Comes Home, 52 DEPAUL L. REV. 849 (2003) (analyzing the impact of the immigration measures adopted in the "war on terror" on Mexican immigrants).
231. Judicial Nominatons: Hearing on Brett Kavanaugh to the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals Before the S. Comm. on the Judiciary, 108th Cong. (2004) (statement of Sen. Schumer, Member, S. Comm. on the Judiciary), available at http://www.judiciary.senate.gov/member_statement.cfm?id=1158&wit_id= 86.
232. Press Release, People for the Am. Way & NAACP, 'Far Right Dream Judge' Janice Rogers Brown Joins Lineup of Extremist Appeals Court Nominees (Aug. 28, 2003), available at http://www.pfaw.org/pfaw/general/default. aspx?oid=11895&print=yes&units=all. As a California Supreme Court justice, Justice Brown penned the decision upholding Proposition 209, which banned affirmative action for women and minorities in public contracts, hiring, and college admissions. Hi-Voltage Wire Works, Inc. v. City of San Jose, 24 Cal. 4th 537, 541-542 (2000). She also partially dissented from a California decision recognizing the parental rights of adoptive same-sex couples, accusing the majority of "trivializ[ing] family bonds." Sharon S. v. Superior Court, 31 Cal. 4th 417, 463 (2003) (Brown, J., concurring in part, dissenting in part).
233. Press Release, Human Rights Campaign, HRC: Judge Pryor Would Undermine Fairness in the Judiciary (May 12, 2005), available at http://www.hrc.org/Template.cfm? Section=Home&CONTENTID=26828&TEMPLATE=/ ContentManagement/ContentDisp lay.cfm.
234. Press Release, The Task Force, The Task Force Denounces U.S. Senate Confirmation of William Pryor Jr. to the Federal Bench (June 9, 2005), available at http://www.thetask force.org/media/release.cfm?releaseID= 837.
235. Id.
236. Press Release, Planned Parenthood Fed'n of Am., Inc., "Compromise" Paves Way for Vote on Extremist Nominee Owen (May 24, 2005), available at http://www4.planned parenthood.org/pp2/portal/media/ pressreleases/pr-050524-supreme-court.xml. Pearl also noted that: Justice Owen has a shameful record of placing harsh burdens on teens seeking judicial bypass of laws that mandate parental involvement in a teen's abortion decision, and even denying judicial bypass to teens who feared that physical abuse would result if their parents became aware of their pregnancy. Id.
237. See supra text accompanying notes 159-161.
238. See Laurie Casey, A Reality Check on Abortion, CHI. TRIB., Jan. 31, 2001, at 3.
239. See Amy Goldstein & Mike Allen, Women's Outreach Office Closed; Feminist Leaders Decry Bush's Shuttering of Clinton Creation, WASH. POST, Mar. 29, 2001, at A21.
240. See 42 C.F.R. 457.622; State Children's Health Insurance Program; Eligibility for Prenatal Care and Other Health Services for Unborn Children, 67 Fed. Reg. 61,956 (Oct. 2, 2002).
241. Pub. L. No. 108-105, 117 Stat. 1201 (2003); see Bush Signs Late-Term Abortion Law, CHI. TRIB., NOV. 6, 2003, RedEye Edition, at 3.
242. Pub. L. No. 108-212, 118 Stat. 568 (2004).
243. See Amy Goldstein, Bush Signs Unborn Victims Act; Federal Law Establishes 2 Crimes Against Pregnant Women, WASH. POST, Apr. 2, 2004, at A4. Most recently, the Senate passed the Child Custody Protection Act, which would criminalize assisting a minor to cross state lines in order to obtain an abortion without parental notification.
244. See Carl Hulse, Senate Removes Abortion Option for Young Girls, N.Y. TIMES, July 26, 2006, at A1. The House passed a similar measure in 2005, and President Bush indicated that he would sign the bill if the two Houses can agree on the content.
245. Id.
246. See AFL-CIO News: Republicans in Senate Vote against Minimum Wage Workers - Again (Oct. 19, 2005), http://www.aflcio.org/issues/jobseconomy/ livingwages/ns1018 2005b.cfm.
247. In 2005, the Senate defeated a proposal that would have raised the federal minimum wage from $5.15 to $7.25 per hour. See Status Report, LEGIS. UPDATE, (AFL-CIO, Wash., D.C.), Mar. 18, 2005, available at http://www.aflcio.org/issues/legislativealert/toolkit/ upload/03-18-2005.pdf.
248. Senator Kennedy introduced another bill in 2005 to increase the minimum wage; Senate Republicans again defeated the bill. See id. In 2006, the Senate defeated the Estate Tax and Extension of Tax Relief Act, which would have raised the federal minimum wage. See Bob Herbert, Deceit Beyond Bounds, N.Y. TIMES, Aug. 10, 2006, at 23.
249. The issue is not dead, however: immediately after the November 2006 elections, the incoming Speaker of the House, Nancy Pelosi, identified raising the minimum wage as a top priority for 2007. Sheryl Gay Stolberg and Jim Rutenberg, Rumsfeld Resigns; Bush Vows 'to Find Common Ground'; Focus Is on Virginia, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 9, 2006, at A1.
250. See OSHA Attacks, LEGIS. UPDATE (AFL-CIO, Wash., D.C.), July 19, 2005, available at http://www.aflcio.org/issues/ legislativealert/toolkit/upload/07-19-05.pdf.
251. See supra text accompanying notes 98-100.
252. ,79 See MILTON J. ESMAN, ETHNIC CONFLICT IN THE WESTERN WORLD (1977) (offering a series of case studies of communal and ethnic solidarities from around the world);
253. PARATMA SARAN, THE ASIAN INDIAN EXPERIENCE IN THE UNITED STATES 7 (1985);
254. John M. Yinger, Ethnicity in Complex Societies: Structural, Cultural and Characterological Factors, in THE USES OF CONTROVERSY IN SOCIOLOGY (L.A. Coser & O.N. Larsen eds., 1976).
255. See John A. Garcia, The Political Integration of Mexican Immigrants: Examining Some Political Orientations, 21 INT'L MIGRATION REV. 372, 376-77 (1987);
256. Joane Nagel & Susan Olzak, Ethnic Mobilization in New and Old States: An Extension of the Competition Model, 30 SOC. PROBS. 127 (1982).
257. See SARAN, supra note 179, at 4-5; Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Identity, in ETHNICITY 121-24, 128-32 (Nathan Glazer & Daniel Moynihan eds., 1975).
258. See MICHAEL OMI & HOWARD WINANT, RACIAL FORMATION IN THE UNITED STATES FROM THE 1960S TO THE 1990S 84 (1st ed. 1986); SARAN, supra note 179, at 5.
259. See OMI & WINANT, supra note 182.
260. Nagel & Olzak, supra note 180, at 129.
261. See Roger Vincent & Joe Matthews, Owners Let Guards Unionize, L.A. TIMES, NOV. 16, 2006, at C2;
262. Erin Aubry Kaplan, They're Our Jobs Too; A New Union in L.A. Recognizes that Hotels Have to Hire More African Americans, L.A. TIMES, Oct. 25, 2006, at A17.
263. See supra notes 59, 107, 118-119 and accompanying text.
264. See Shannon McCaffrey, Hispanic and Black Groups Demand Georgia Governor Retract Statements on Immigration, ASSOCIATED PRESS WORLDSTREAM, Sept. 18, 2006, available at http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2006/09/18/america/NA_GEN_US_Immigration_ Rally.php.
265. See Hendricks, supra note 4.
266. Id.
267. See supra text accompanying notes 62-65.
268. See supra text accompanying notes 64, 72, 91-93.
269. See supra text accompanying notes 34-35, 45-59.
270. See supra text accompanying notes 42-13, 56, 107, 110, 120-123.
271. For thoughtful analysis of a successful community-based organization, see Julissa Reynoso, Putting Out Fires Before They Start: Community Organizing and Collaborative Governance in the Bronx, U.S.A., 24 LAW & INEQ. 213 (2006).
272. See Sylvia R. Lazos Vargas, The Latina/o and APIA Vote Post-2000: What Does It Mean To Move Beyond "Black and White" Politics?, 81 OR. L. REV. 783, 799-800 (2002).