George I. Sánchez, ideology, and whiteness in the making of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement, 1930-1960

Journal of Southern History

Volumn 72, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 569-604

  Blanton, Carlos K ^a  

^a TEXAS A AND M UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 60949619759     PISSN: 00224642     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/27649149     Document Type: Article

References (138)

1. For more on Sánchez see Gladys R. Leff, "George I. Sánchez: Don Quixote of the Southwest" (Ph.D. dissertation, North Texas State University, 1976)
2. James Nelson Mowry, "A Study of the Educational Thought and Action of George I. Sánchez" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas, 1977)
3. Américo Paredes, ed., Humanidad: Essays in Honor of George I. Sánchez (Los Angeles, 1977)
4. Steven Schlossman, "Self-Evident Remedy? George I. Sanchez, Segregation, and Enduring Dilemmas in Bilingual Education," Teachers College Record, 84 (Summer 1983), 871-907
5. and Mario T. García, Mexican Americans: Leadership, Ideology, and Identity, 1930-1960 (New Haven, 1989), chap. 10
6. Charles W. Eagles, "Toward New Histories of the Civil Rights Era," Journal of Southern History, 66 (November 2000), 848
7. See Emilio Zamora, The World of the Mexican Worker in Texas (College Station, Tex., 1993)
8. George J. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945 (New York, 1993)
9. Benjamin Heber Johnson, Revolution in Texas: How a Forgotten Rebellion and Its Bloody Suppression Turned Mexicans into Americans (New Haven, 2003)
10. and Arnoldo De León, The Tejano Community, 1836-1900 (1982; new ed., Dallas, 1997)
11. See Mario García, Mexican Americans
12. George J. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American
13. David G. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity (Berkeley, 1995)
14. Ignacio M. García, Viva Kennedy: Mexican Americans in Search of Camelot (College Station, Tex., 2000)
15. Carl Allsup, The American G.I. Forum: Origins and Evolution (Austin, 1982)
16. Richard A. Garcia, Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class: San Antonio, 1929-1941 (College Station, Tex., 1991)
17. David Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1986 (Austin, 1987), chaps. 12 and 13
18. Julie Leininger Pycior, LBJ and Mexican Americans: The Paradox of Power (Austin, 1997)
19. Juan Gómez-Quiñones, Chicano Politics: Reality and Promise, 1940-1990 (Albuquerque, 1990)
20. and Guadalupe San Miguel Jr., Brown, Not White: School Integration and the Chicano Movement in Houston (College Station, Tex., 2001)
21. David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (1991; rev. ed., New York, 1999)
22. Roediger, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness: Essays on Race, Politics, and Working Class History (New York, 1994)
23. Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, Mass., 1998)
24. George Lipsitz, The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How White People Profit From Identity Politics (Philadelphia, 1998)
25. Peter Kolchin, "Whiteness Studies: The New History of Race in America," Journal of American History, 89 (June 2002), 154-73
26. Eric Arnesen, "Whiteness and the Historians' Imagination," International Labor and Working-Class History, 60 (Fall 2001), 3-32
27. Barbara J. Fields, "Whiteness, Racism, and Identity," International Labor and Working-Class History, 60 (Fall 2001), 48-56 (quotations on p. 48)
28. Daniel Wickberg, "Heterosexual White Male: Some Recent Inversions in American Cultural History," Journal of American History, 92 (June 2005) 136-57
29. Ian F. Haney López, White By Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York, 1996)
30. Neil Foley, The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture (Berkeley, 1997)
31. Steven Harmon Wilson, The Rise of Judicial Management in the U.S. District Court, Southern District of Texas, 1955-2000 (Athens, Ga., 2002)
32. Wilson, "Brown over 'Other White': Mexican Americans' Legal Arguments and Litigation Strategy in School Desegregation Lawsuits," Law and History Review, 21 (Spring 2003), 145-94
33. Clare Sheridan, "'Another White Race': Mexican Americans and the Paradox of Whiteness in Jury Selection," Law and History Review, 21 (Spring 2003), 109-44
34. Ariela J. Gross, "Texas Mexicans and the Politics of Whiteness," Law and History Review, 21 (Spring 2003), 195-205
35. Carlos Kevin Blanton, The Strange Career of Bilingual Education in Texas, 1836-1981 (College Station, Tex., 2004)
36. Patrick J. Carroll, Felix Longoria's Wake: Bereavement, Racism, and the Rise of Mexican American Activism (Austin, 2003)
37. Foley, "Becoming Hispanic," 53-70 (quotation on p. 65)
38. Foley, "Partly Colored or Other White: Mexican Americans and Their Problem with the Color Line," in Stephanie Cole and Alison M. Parker, eds., Beyond Black and White: Race, Ethnicity, and Gender in the U.S. South and Southwest (College Station, Tex., 2004), 123-44
39. Arnesen, "Whiteness and the Historians' Imagination," 24
40. Richard S. Kirkendall, Social Scientists and Farm Politics in the Age of Roosevelt (Columbia, Mo., 1966), 1-6
41. George I. Sánchez, Forgotten People: A Study of New Mexicans (1940; reprint, Albuquerque, 1996), xvi-xvii
42. Sánchez, Forgotten People, 86
43. George I. Sánchez, "History, Culture, and Education," in Julian Samora, ed., La Raza: Forgotten Americans (Notre Dame, 1966), 1-26
44. Mario García, Mexican Americans, 267-68
45. George I. Sánchez, The People: A Study of the Navajos ([Washington, D.C.], 1948)
46. For more on its creation, see Judith Ewell, Venezuela: A Century of Change (Stanford, 1984), 75
47. Dave Cheavens, "Soft-Spoken UT Professor Loaned to Coordinator of Latin-American Affairs," Austin Statesman, December 3, 1943, in Sánchez Vertical File
48. "Texan Will Direct Training of Teachers," Dallas Morning News, November 3, 1943, ibid.
49. George I. Sánchez, "Mexican Education As It Looks Today," Nation's Schools, 32 (September 1943), 23, ibid.
50. George I. Sánchez, Mexico: A Revolution by Education (New York, 1936)
51. Numan V. Bartley. The New South, 1945-1980 (Baton Rouge, 1995), 15
52. Compendium on Southern Rural Life with Reference to the Problems of the Common School (9 vols.; [Chicago?], 1936)
53. A. C. Lewis to G. I. Sánchez, October 14, 1936, Folder 13, Box 207, Rosenwald Fund Archives
54. Sánchez to Miss Clyde Mobley, September 28. 1936, ibid.
55. Sánchez, "The Rural Normal School's Teacher-Education Program Involves . . .," September 17, 1936, Folder 16, Box 207, ibid.
56. John Egerton, Speak Now Against the Day: The Generation Before the Civil Rights Movement in the South (New York, 1994), 91-92
57. George Brown Tindall, The Emergence of the New South, 1913-1945 (Baton Rouge, 1967), 543, 544 (quotation)
58. Matthew William Dunne, "Next Steps: Charles S. Johnson and Southern Liberalism," Journal of Negro History, 83 (Winter 1998), 10-11
59. Phillip B. Gonzales, Forced Sacrifice as Ethnic Protest: The Hispano Cause in New Mexico and the Racial Attitude Confrontation of 1933 (New York, 2001), 114, 130, 218, 244
60. G. I. Sánchez to Zimmerman, September 30, 1935, Folder "Sánchez, George I., 1933-35," Box 10, ibid. (quotation)
61. Zimmerman to Sánchez, October 22, 1935, Folder "Sánchez, George I., 1933-35," Box 10, ibid
62. G. I. Sánchez to Leo M. Favrot, July 9, 1937, Folder 2043, Box 212, General Education Board Papers
63. George I. Sánchez, The Equalization of Educational Opportunity - Some Issues and Problems (Albuquerque, 1939), 37-40
64. G. I. Sánchez to Edwin R. Embree, April 3, 1940, Folder 5, Box 127, Rosenwald Fund Archives
65. William A. Link, The Paradox of Southern Progressivism, 1880-1930 (Chapel Hill, 1992), 240-43
66. Dunne, "Next Steps," 2-3, 8-9
67. Kolchin, "Whiteness Studies," 170
68. G. I. Sánchez to Dennis Chavez, October 17, 1941, Folder 11, Box 22, Sánchez Papers
69. Lipsitz, Possessive Investment in Whiteness, 201-2
70. Guadalupe San Miguel Jr., "Let All of Them Take Heed": Mexican Americans and the Campaign for Educational Equality in Texas, 1910-1981 (Austin, 1987), chap. 4
71. Blanton, Strange Career of Bilingual Education, chap. 6
72. "Justice Urged for Mexicans in U.S.," Washington Post, May 6, 1942, p. 13 (quotation)
73. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors, 131
74. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors, 145-46, 158-59
75. Gladwin Hill, "Peons in the West Lowering Culture," New York Times, March 27, 1951, p. 31
76. López, White By Law, 38
77. Carroll, Felix Longoria's Wake, 9, 114
78. Foley, "Partly Colored or Other White," 132
79. Foley, White Scourge, 209-11
80. Mario Barrera, Race and Class in the Southwest: A Theory of Racial Inequality (Notre Dame, 1979), chap. 5
81. Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans, 298-99
82. Wickberg, "Heterosexual White Male," 151
83. Tindall, Emergence of the New South, 567-69
84. Charles S. Johnson, Patterns of Negro Segregation (New York, 1943), 316
85. Dunne, "Next Steps," 16
86. George Norris Green, The Establishment in Texas Politics: The Primitive Years, 1935-1957 (1979; reprint, Norman, Okla., 1984), 103-11, 139-41
87. Ricky F. Dobbs, Yellow Dogs and Republicans: Allan Shivers and Texas Two-Party Politics (College Station, Tex., 2005), 55-58
88. Elam, "Stop Wetback Flow," (quotation)
89. "Justice Urged for Mexicans in U.S.," Washington Post, May 6, 1942, p. 13
90. George I. Sánchez, "New Mexicans and Acculturation," New Mexico Quarterly Review, 11 (February 1941), 62
91. David L. Chappell, Inside Agitators: White Southerners in the Civil Rights Movement (Baltimore, 1994), 49
92. Pycior, LBJ and Mexican Americans, 95, 96 (quotation)
93. Ricardo Romo, "George I. Sánchez and the Civil Rights Movement: 1940-1960," La Raza Law Journal, 1 (1986), 353-55
94. F. Arturo Rosales, ¡Pobre Raza! Violence, Justice, and Mobilization Among México Lindo Immigrants, 1900-1936 (Austin, 1999), 134-35
95. Galvan v. Press, 347 U.S. 522 (1954)
96. Garcia v. Landon, 348 U.S. 866 (1954)
97. Westminster School Dist. of Orange County et al. v. Mendez et al., 161 F.2d 774 (9th Cir. 1947)
98. For more on this see Wilson, Rise of Judicial Management, 376n144
99. A. L. Wirin to G. I. Sánchez, August 21, 1950, Folder 15, Box 62, Sánchez Papers
100. Charles H. Martin, The Angelo Herndon Case and Southern Justice (Baton Rouge, 1976), 68-72, 202-4
101. A. L. Wirin to G. I. Sánchez, July 18, 1951, Folder 16, Box 62, Sánchez Papers
102. Gonzalez et al. v. Sheely et al., 96 F. Supp. 1004 (1951)
103. Sánchez to Wirin, March 26, 1953, Folder 18, Box 62, Sánchez Papers
104. Sánchez to Simon Gross, August 19, 1957, Folder 8, Box 31, ibid.
105. Sánchez to Roger N. Baldwin, October 26, 1954, Folder 7, Box 31, ibid.
106. Hernandez et al. v. Driscoll Consolidated Independent School District et al., 2 Race Relations Law Reporter 329 (S.D. Texas 1957)
107. Hernandez v. Texas, 74 S.Ct. 667 (1954)
108. A. L. Wirin to G. I. Sánchez, May 17, 1956, Folder 2, Box 63, ibid.
109. San Miguel, "Let All of Them Take Heed," 169-72
110. Carroll, Felix Longoria's Wake, 114-15 (second quotation on p. 114), 124-25
111. Foley, "Becoming Hispanic," 54 (quotation), 63-64
112. Steven H. Wilson, "Tracking the Shifting Racial Identity of Mexican Americans," Law and History Review, 21 (Spring 2003), 211-13
113. Dara Orenstein, "Void for Vagueness: Mexicans and the Collapse of Miscegenation Law in California," Pacific Historical Review, 74 (August 2005), 367-407
114. C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (1955; new ed., New York, 2002), 146-47
115. Mark V. Tushnet, The NAACP's Legal Strategy Against Segregated Education, 1925-1950 (Chapel Hill, 1987), 21-25, 131
116. A. L. Wirin to G. I. Sánchez, November 16, 1949, Folder 15, Box 62, Sánchez Papers (first quotation)
117. See Sánchez to Fred McCuistion, June 17, 1946, Folder 5490, Box 514, General Education Board Papers
118. Thurgood Marshall to G. I. Sánchez, July 11, 1955, Folder 8, Box 24, Sánchez Papers
119. "Sanchez to Discuss Negro Education," Austin Daily Texan, April 28, 1948, in Sánchez Vertical Files
120. Emilio Zamora, "The Failed Promise of Wartime Opportunity for Mexicans in the Texas Oil Industry," Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 95 (January 1992), 330-33
121. Félix D. Almaráz Jr., Knight Without Armor: Carlos Eduardo Castañeda, 1896-1958 (College Station, Tex., 1999), 260-62
122. Romo, "George I. Sánchez and the Civil Rights Movement," 346-48
123. Sánchez to Johnson, April 1, 1954, Folder 16, Box 20, Sánchez Papers
124. Sánchez, "Pachucos in the Making," Common Ground, 4 (Autumn 1943), 13-20
125. Woodward, Strange Career of Jim Crow, 221-25
126. Patrick J. Gilpin and Marybeth Gasman, Charles S. Johnson: Leadership Beyond the Veil in the Age of Jim Crow (Albany, 2003), 192. Johnson died in late 1956
127. G. I. Sánchez to Roger N. Baldwin, August 27, 1958, Folder 8, Box 31, Sánchez Papers
128. George I. Sánchez, "Southwest Spanish-Americans Prepare to Challenge Power-Structure Forcing Second-Class Citizenship," Southwesterner, 6 (December 1966), 22 (first quotation), 23 (second quotation)
129. Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925 (New York, 1976), xvii-xxii
130. Daryl Michael Scott, Contempt and Pity: Social Policy and the Image of the Damaged Black Psyche, 1880-1996 (Chapel Hill, 1997), chaps. 6 and 9
131. For an African American social scientist who utilized such inflammatory academic descriptions of African Americans, see E. Franklin Frazier, Black Bourgeoisie (Glencoe, Ill., 1957)
132. Green, Establishment in Texas Politics, 190
133. Tony Badger, "'Closet Moderates': Why White Liberals Failed, 1940-1970," in Ted Ownby, ed., The Role of Ideas in the Civil Rights South (Jackson, Miss., 2002), 111 (quotation)
134. G. I. Sánchez to Roger N. Baldwin, August 8, 1958, Folder 8, Box 31, Sánchez Papers
135. Gilpin and Gasman, Charles S. Johnson, 219-24
136. For the tangled relationship of African American colleges and philanthropy, see James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (Chapel Hill, 1988), 263-70
137. Romero et al. v. Weakley et al.; Burleigh et al. v. Weakley et al., 131 F. Supp. 818 (S.D. California 1955)
138. A. L. Wirin to G. I. Sánchez, September 20, 1955, Folder 1, Box 63, Sánchez Papers