Taking stock of criminal profiling: A narrative review and meta-analysis

Criminal Justice and Behavior

Volumn 34, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 437-453

  Snook, Brent ^a   Eastwood, Joseph ^a   Gendreau, Paul ^b   Goggin, Claire ^c   Cullen, Richard M ^a  

^a MEMORIAL UNIVERSITY OF NEWFOUNDLAND   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEW BRUNSWICK   (Canada)

^c UNIVERSITY OF ST THOMAS   (United States)

Author keywords

Criminal profiling; Meta analysis; Predictive validity; Psychological profiling

Indexed keywords

EID: 33947638901     PISSN: 00938548     EISSN: 15523594     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0093854806296925     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. References marked with one asterisk indicate studies included in the narrative review. References marked with two asterisks indicate studies included in both the narrative and the meta-analytic reviews.
2. Aitkens, C.G.G., Connolly, T., Gammerman, A., Zhang, G., Bailey, D., Gordon, R., Oldfield, R. (1996). Statistical modelling in specific case analysis. Science and Justice, 36, 245-255.
3. Alison, L.J., Bennell, C., Mokros, A., Ormerod, D. (2002). The personality paradox in offender profiling: A theoretical review of the processes involved in deriving background characteristics from crime scene actions. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 8, 115-135.
4. Alison, L.J., Canter, D.V. (1999 a). Professional, legal and ethical issues in offender profiling. In D. V. Canter L. J. Alison (Eds.), Profiling in policy and practice (pp. 21-54). Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing.
5. Alison, L.J., Canter, D.V. (1999 b). Profiling in policy and practice. In D. V. Canter L. J. Alison (Eds.), Profiling in policy and practice (pp. 1-19). Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing
6. Alison, L.J., Salfati, C.G. (1998). The investigative psychology approach. In Case Analysis Unit (Ed.), Case Analysis Unit (BKA), Method of Case Analysis: An International Symposium (pp. 101-112). Weisbaden, Germany: Bundeskriminalamt Kriminalistisches Institut.
7. Alison, L.J., Smith, M.D., Eastman, O., Rainbow, L. (2003). Toulmin's philosophy of argument and its relevance to offender profiling. Psychology, Crime, and Law, 9, 173-183.
8. Alison, L.J., Smith, M.D., Morgan, K. (2002). Interpreting the accuracy of offender profiles. Psychology, Crime, and Law, 9, 185-195.
9. Annon, J.S. (1995). Investigative profiling: A behavioral analysis of the crime scene. American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 13, 67-75.
10. Åsgard, U. (1998). Swedish experiences in offender profiling and evaluation of some aspects of a case of murder and abduction in Germany. In Case Analysis Unit (Ed.), Case Analysis Unit (BKA), Method of Case Analysis: An International Symposium (pp. 125-129). Weisbaden, Germany: Bundeskriminalamt Kriminalistisches Institut.
11. Ault, R.L., Hazelwood, R.R., Reboussin, R. (1994). Epistemological status of equivocal death analysis. American Psychologist, 49, 72-73.
12. Ault, R.L., Reese, J.T. (1980). A psychological assessment of crime profiling. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 49, 22-25.
13. Badcock, R.J. (1997). Developmental and clinical issues in relation to offending in the individual. In J. L. Jackson D. A. Bekerian (Eds.), Offender profiling: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 9-41). Chichester, England: Wiley.
14. Bekerian, D.A., Jackson, J.L. (1997). Critical issues in offender profiling. In J. L. Jackson D. A. Bekerian (Eds.), Offender profiling: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 209-220). Chichester, England: Wiley.
15. Bennell, C., Jones, N.J., Taylor, P.J., Snook, B. (2006). Validities and abilities in criminal profiling: A critique of the studies conducted by Richard Kocsis and his colleagues. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 50, 344-360.
16. Blau, T.H. (1994). Psychological profiling. In T. H. Blau (Ed.), Psychological services for law enforcement (pp. 261-274). New York: Wiley.
17. Boon, J.C.W. (1997). The contribution of personality theories to psychological profiling. In J. L. Jackson D. A. Bekerian (Eds.), Offender profiling: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 43-59). Chichester, England: Wiley.
18. Boon, J.C.W. (1998). Science, psychology and psychological profiling. In Case Analysis Unit (Ed.), Case Analysis Unit (BKA), Method of Case Analysis: An International Symposium (pp. 143-154). Weisbaden, Germany: Bundeskriminalamt Kriminalistisches Institut.
19. Boon, J.C.W., Davies, G. (1993). Criminal profiling. Policing, 9, 218-227.
20. Burgess, A.W., Groth, A.N., Ressler, R.K., Douglas, J.E. (1980, September). Offender profiles: A multidisciplinary approach. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 16-20.
21. Campbell, C. (1976, May). Portrait of a mass killer. Psychology Today, 110-119.
22. Canter, D.V. (1988, March 4). To catch a rapist. New Society, 14-15.
23. Canter, D.V. (1989, January). Offender profiles. The Psychologist, 2, 12-16.
24. Canter, D.V. (1993, October). Psychology of offender profiling. Paper presented at the First NISCALE Workshop on Criminality and Law Enforcement, Leiden, The Netherlands.
25. Canter, D.V. (2000). Offender profiling and criminal differentiation. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 5, 23-46.
26. Canter, D.V. (2004). Offender profiling and investigative psychology. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 1, 1-15.
27. Canter, D.V., Alison, L.J. (1999). Profiling in policy and practice. In D. V. Canter L. J. Alison (Eds.), Profiling in policy and practice (pp. 1-19). Ashgate, England: Aldershot Publishing.
28. Canter, D.V., Alison, L.J. (2000). Profiling property crime. In D. V. Canter L. J. Alison (Eds.), Profiling property crime (pp. 1-30). Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing.
29. Canter, D.V., Alison, L.J., Alison, E., Wentink, N. (2004). The organized/disorganized typology of serial murder: Myth or model ? Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 10, 293-320.
30. Canter, D.V., Fritzon, K. (1998). Differentiating arsonists: A model of firesetting actions and characteristics. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 3, 73-96.
31. Canter, D.V., Heritage, R. (1990). A multivariate model of sexual offence behaviour: Developments in offender profiling: I. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry, 1, 185-212.
32. Case Analysis Unit. (1998). Methods of Case Analysis: An International Symposium.
33. Bundeskriminalamt, Wiesbaden, Germany: Kriminalistisches Institut.
34. Casey-Owens, M. (1984). The anonymous letter writerA psychological profile ? Journal of Forensic Sciences, 29, 816-819.
35. Clark, D. (2002). Dark paths, cold trails: How a Mountie led the quest to link serial killers to their victims. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: HarperCollins.
36. Cook, P.E., Hinman, D.L. (1999). Criminal profiling: Science and art. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 15, 230-241.
37. Cooley, C.M., Turvey, B.E. (2002). Reliability and validity: Admissibility standards relative to forensic experts illustrated by criminal profiling evidence, testimony, and judicial rulings. Journal of Behavioral Profiling, 3. Retrieved May 15, 2003, from http://www.law-forensic.com/ jbp_reliability_validity.htm
38. Copson, G. (1995). Coals to Newcastle? Part 1: A study of offender profiling. London: Home Office, Police Research Group.
39. Copson, G., Badcock, R.J., Boon, J.W.C., Britton, P. (1997). Editorial: Articulating a systematic approach to clinical crime profiling. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 7, 13-17.
40. Crace, J. (1995). Inside the criminal mind. New Statesman and Society, 8, 29.
41. Cumming, G., Finch, S. (2005). Inference by eye: Confidence intervals and how to read pictures of data. American Psychologist, 60, 170-180.
42. Daeid, N.N. (1997). Differences in offender profiling in the United States of America and the United Kingdom. Forensic Science International, 90, 25-31.
43. Davies, A. (1994). Editorial: Offender profiling. Medicine, Science, and the Law, 34, 185-186.
44. Davies, A., Wittebrood, K., Jackson, J.L. (1997). Predicting the criminal antecedents of a stranger rapist from his offence behaviour. Science and Justice, 37, 161-170.
45. Davis, J.A. (1995, November). The police psychologist: The emergence of behavioral scientists in law enforcement. Police Chief, 62, 36-39.
46. Davis, J.A. (1997). Criminal psychological personality profiling: A contemporary investigative tool to assist law enforcement. Journal of Human Performance in Extreme Environments, 2, 138-142.
47. Davis, J.A. (1998). Profile of a sexual predator: A psychological autopsy of an American serial killer. Forensic Examiner, 7, 28-33.
48. Davis, J.A. (1999). Criminal personality profiling and crime scene assessment. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 15, 291-301.
49. Depue, R.L. (1986, December). An American response to an era of violence. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 55, 2-5.
50. Douglas, J.E., Burgess, A.E. (1986, December). Criminal profiling: A viable investigative tool against violent crime. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 55, 9-13.
51. Douglas, J.E., Munn, C. (1992, February). Violent crime scene analysis: Modus operandi, signature, and staging. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 61, 1-10.
52. Douglas, J.E., Olshaker, M. (1995). Mind hunter: Inside the FBI's elite serial crime unit. New York: Simon and Schuster.
53. Douglas, J.E., Olshaker, M. (1997). Journey into darkness: The FBI's premier investigator penetrates the minds and motives of the most terrifying serial criminals. New York: Simon and Schuster.
54. Douglas, J.E., Ressler, R.K., Burgess, A.W., Hartman, C.R. (1986). Criminal profiling from crime scene analysis. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 4, 401-421.
55. Egger, S.A. (1999). Psychological profiling: Past, present, and future. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 15, 242-261.
56. Farrington, D.P., Lambert, S. (1997). Predicting offender profiles from victim and witness descriptions. In J. L. Jackson D. A. Bekerian (Eds.), Offender profiling: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 133-158). Chichester, England: Wiley.
57. Fleiss, J.L. (1993). The statistical basis of meta-analysis. Statistical Methods in Medical Research, 2, 121-145
58. Fritzon, K. (2000). The contribution of psychological research to arson investigation. In D. V. Canter L. J. Alison (Eds.), Profiling property crime (pp. 149-184). Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing.
59. Geberth, V.J. (1981, September). Psychological profiling. Law and Order, 29, 46-52.
60. Geberth, V.J. (1995, November). Criminal personality profiling. Law and Order, 43, 45-49.
61. Geberth, V.J. (1996). Investigative assessment: Criminal personality profiling. In V. J. Geberth (Ed.), Practical homicide investigation: Tactics, procedures, and forensic techniques (3 rd ed., pp. 489-537). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
62. Gendreau, P., Goggin, C., Cullen, F.T., Paparozzi, M. (2002). The common-sense revolution and correctional policy. In J. Maguire (Ed.), Offender rehabilitation and treatment: Effective programmes and policies to reduce re-offending (pp. 359 386). Chichester, England: Wiley.
63. Gilovich, T. (1991). How we know what isn't so: The fallibility of human reason in everyday life. New York: The Free Press.
64. Godwin, M. (1998). Reliability, validity, and utility of extant serial murderer classifications. The Criminologist, 22, 194-210.
65. Godwin, M. (2002). Reliability, validity, and utility of criminal profiling typologies. Journal of Police and Criminal Profiling, 17, 1-18.
66. Grubin, D. (1995). Offender profiling. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry, 6, 259-263.
67. Gudjonsson, G.H., Copson, G. (1997). The role of the expert in criminal investigation. In J. L. Jackson D. A. Bekerian (Eds.), Offender profiling: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 61-76). Chichester, England: Wiley.
68. Hazelwood, R.R., Douglas, J.E. (1980). The lust murderer. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 49, 18-20.
69. Hazelwood, R.R., Ressler, R.K., Depue, R.L., Douglas, J.E. (1995). Criminal investigative analysis: An overview. In R. R. Hazelwood A. W. Burgess (Eds.), Practical aspects of rape investigation: A multidisciplinary approach (2 nd ed., pp. 115-126). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
70. Hazelwood, R.R., Warren, J.L. (2000). The sexually violent offender: Impulsive or ritualistic ? Aggression and Violent Behaviour, 5, 267-279.
71. Hedges, L.V. (1994). Statistical considerations. In H. Cooper L. V. Hedges (Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis (pp. 30-38). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
72. Hedges, L.V., Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Academic Press.
73. Hedges, L.V., Vevea, J.L. (1998). Fixed- and random-effects models in meta-analysis. Psychological Methods, 3, 486-504.
74. Hicks, S.J., Sales, B.D. (2006). Criminal profiling: Developing an effective science and practice. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
75. Holmes, R.M., De Burger, J. (1988). Serial murder. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
76. Homant, R.J., Kennedy, D.B. (1998). Psychological aspects of crime scene profiling. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 25, 319-343.
77. House, J.C. (1997). Towards a practical application of offender profiling: The RNC's criminal suspect prioritization system. In J. L. Jackson D. A. Bekerian (Eds.), Offender profiling: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 177-190). Chichester, England: Wiley.
78. Howitt, D. (2002). Introduction to forensic and criminal psychology. London: Prentice Hall.
79. Hunter, J.E., Schmidt, F.L. (2004). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings (2 nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
80. Jackson, J.L., Bekerian, D.A. (1997). Does offender profiling have a role to play ? In J. L. Jackson D. A. Bekerian (Eds.), Offender profiling: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 1-7). Chichester, England: Wiley.
81. Jackson, J.L., Herbrink, J.C.M., van Koppen, P.J. (1997). An empirical approach to offender profiling. In V. G. S. Redondon, J. Perez, R. Barbaret (Eds.), Advances in psychology and law: International contributions (pp. 333-345). Berlin: De Gruyter.
82. Jackson, J.L., van den Eshof, P., de Kleuver, E.E. (1997). A research approach to offender profiling. In J. L. Jackson D. A. Bekerian (Eds.), Offender profiling: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 107-132). Chichester, England: Wiley.
83. Ja?kiewicz-Obydzi?ska, T., Wach, E. (1999, July). The significance of information about a homicide victim for a psychological profiling of the perpetrator. Paper presented at the International Psychology and Law Conference, Dublin, Ireland.
84. Kennedy, D.B., Homant, R.J. (1997). Problems with the use of criminal profiling in premises security litigation. Trial Diplomacy Journal, 20, 223-229.
85. Keppel, R.D. (2000). Signature murders: A report of the 1984 Cranbrook, British Columbia cases. Journal of Forensic Science, 45, 508-511.
86. Keppel, R.D., Walter, R. (1999). Profiling killers: A revised classification model for understanding sexual murder. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 43, 417-437.
87. Keppel, R.D., Weis, J.G. (1993). Improving the investigation of violent crime: The homicide investigation and tracking system. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
88. Keppel, R.D., Weis, J.G. (1994). Time and distance as solvability factors in murder cases. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 39, 386-401.
89. Kimble, G.A. (1994). How to use (and misuse) statistics. New York: Prentice Hall.
90. Kirk, R.E. (1996). Practical significance: A concept whose time has come. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 56, 746-759.
91. Kocsis, R.N. (2003 a). Criminal psychological profiling: Validities and abilities. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 47, 126-144.
92. Kocsis, R.N. (2003 b). An empirical assessment of content in criminal psychological profiles. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 47, 37-46.
93. Kocsis, R.N. (2004). Psychological profiling of serial arson offenses: An assessment of skills and accuracy. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 31, 341-361.
94. Kocsis, R.N., Cooksey, R.W. (2002). Criminal psychological profiling of serial arson crimes. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 46, 631-656.
95. Kocsis, R.N., Cooksey, R.W., Irwin, H.J. (2002 a). Psychological profiling of offender characteristics from crime behaviors in serial rape offences. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 46, 144-169.
96. Kocsis, R.N., Cooksey, R., Irwin, H.J. (2002 b). Psychological profiling of sexual murders: An empirical model. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 46, 532-554.
97. Kocsis, R.N., Hayes, A.F. (2004). Believing is seeing? Investigating the perceived accuracy of criminal psychological profiles. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 48, 149-160.
98. Kocsis, R.N., Hayes, A.F., Irwin, H.J. (2002). Investigative experience and accuracy in psychological profiling of a violent crime. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 811-823.
99. Kocsis, R.N., Heller, G.Z. (2004). Believing is seeing: II. Beliefs and perceptions of criminal psychological profiles. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 48, 313-329.
100. Kocsis, R.N., Heller, G.Z., Try, A. (2003). Visual versus narrative case material: The impact of criminal psychological profiling. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 47, 664-676.
101. Kocsis, R.N., Irwin, H.J. (1998). The psychological profile of serial offenders and a redefinition of the misnomer of serial crime. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 5, 197-213.
102. Kocsis, R.N., Irwin, H.J., Hayes, A.F. (1998). Organised and disorganised criminal behaviour syndromes in arsonists: A validation study of a psychological profiling concept. Psychiatry, Psychology, and Law, 5, 117-131.
103. Kocsis, R.N., Irwin, H.J., Hayes, A.F., Nunn, R. (2000). Expertise in psychological profiling. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 311-33 1.
104. Kocsis, R.N., Middledorp, J. (2004). Believing is seeing: III. Perceptions of content in criminal psychological profiles. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 48, 477-494.
105. Kocsis, R.N., Middledorp, J., Try, A.C. (2005). Cognitive processes in criminal profile construction: A preliminary study. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 49, 662-681.
106. Kuznestov, A., Pierson, T.A. (1992). Victim age as a basis for profiling sex offenders. Federal Probation, 56, 34-38.
107. Latessa, E.J., Cullen, F.T., Gendreau, P. (2002). Beyond correctional quackery: Professionalism and the possibility of effective treatment. Federal Probation, 66, 43-49.
108. Leyton, E. (1983). A social profile of sexual mass murderers. In T. Fleming L. Visano (Eds.), Deviant designations: Crime law and deviance in Canada (pp. 98-107). Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Butterworth.
109. Lynch, I., Dale, A. (1994, June). Profiling the burglars. Police Review, 102, 18-19.
110. Macdonald, J.M., Michaud, D.L. (1987). Criminal profiles. In J. M. Macdonald D. L. Michaud (Eds.), The confession: Interrogation and criminal profiles for police officers (pp. 191-196). Denver, CO: Apache Press.
111. Matlin, M.W. (1998). Cognition (4 th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace.
112. McCann, J.T. (1992). Criminal personality profiling in the investigation of violent crime: Recent advances and future directions. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 10, 475-481.
113. McCosh, J. (1996). The Scottish philosophy [Online]. Retrieved November 16, 2005, from http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/mccosh/ scottishphilosophy.pdf (Original work published 1875 )
114. McGrath, M.G. (2000). Criminal profiling: Is there a role for the forensic psychiatrist ? Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 28, 315-324.
115. McGraw, K.O., Wong, S.P. (1992). A common language effect size statistic. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 361-365.
116. McPoyle, T.J. (1981, Spring). The investigative technique of criminal personality profiling. Your Virginia State Trooper Magazine, 3, 87-91.
117. Mokros, A., Alison, L.J. (2002). Is offender profiling possible? Testing the predicted homology of crime scene actions and background characteristics in a sample of rapists. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 7, 25-43.
118. Muller, D.A. (2000). Criminal profiling: Real science or just wishful thinking ? Homicide Studies, 4, 234-264.
119. Myers, D.G. (1996). Social psychology (6 th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
120. Nisbett, R., Ross, L. (1980). Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgment. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
121. Nowikowski, F. (1995). Psychological offender profiling: An overview. The Criminologist, 19, 225-226.
122. Oleson, J.C. (1996). Psychological profiling: Does it actually work ? Forensic Update, 46, 11-14.
123. Ormerod, D.C. (1996 a). The evidential implications of psychological profiling. Criminal Law Review, 717, 863-877.
124. Ormerod, D.C. (1996 b). Psychological profiling. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry, 7, 341-352.
125. Ormerod, D.C. (1999). Criminal profiling: Trial by judge and jury, not criminal psychologist. In D. V. Canter L. J. Alison (Eds.), Profiling in policy and practice (pp. 209-249). Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing.
126. Palermo, G.B. (2002). Criminal profiling: The uniqueness of the killer. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 46, 383-385.
127. Pinizzotto, A.J. (1984). Forensic psychology: Criminal personality profiling. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 12, 32-40.
128. Pinizzotto, A.J., Finkel, N.J. (1990). Criminal personality profiling: An outcome and process study. Law and Human Behavior, 14, 215-233.
129. Porter, B. (1983, April). Mind hunters: Tracking down killers with the FBI's psychological profiling team. Psychology Today, 17, 44-52.
130. Rayment, M. (1995, January). Inside the mind of a criminal. NSW Police News, 75, 15-18.
131. Reiser, M., Ludwig, L., Saxe, S., Wagner, C. (1979). Evaluation of the use of psychics in the investigation of major crimes. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 7, 18-25.
132. Ressler, R.K., Burgess, A.W., Depue, R.L., Douglas, J.E., Hazelwood, R.R. (1985, August). Crime scene and profile characteristics of organized and disorganized murderers. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 54, 18-25.
133. Ressler, R.K., Burgess, A.W., Hartman, C.R., D' Agostino, R.B. (1986). Sexual killers and their victims: Identifying patterns through crime scene analysis. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 1, 288-308.
134. Ressler, R.K., Schachtman, T. (1992). Whoever fights monsters: My twenty years tracking serial killers for the FBI. New York: St. Martin's Press.
135. Rider, A.O. (1980, June). The firesetter: A psychological profile. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 40, 6-13.
136. Rogers, M. (2003). The role of criminal profiling in the computer forensics process. Computers and Security, 22, 292-298.
137. Rosenthal, R. (1991). Meta-analytic procedures for social research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
138. Rosenthal, R., Rubin, D.B. (1982). A simple, general purpose display of magnitude of experimental effect. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 166-169.
139. Rossi, D. (1982, January). Crime scene behavioral analysis: Another tool for the law enforcement investigator. The Police Chief, 1, 152-155.
140. Rossmo, D.K. (2000). Geographic profiling. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
141. Safarik, M.E., Jarvis, J., Nussbaum, K. (2000). Elderly female serial sexual homicide: A limited empirical test of criminal investigative analysis. Homicide Studies, 4, 294-307.
142. Salfati, C.G. (2000). The nature of expressiveness and instrumentality in homicide: Implications for offender profiling. Homicide Studies, 4, 265-293.
143. Salfati, C.G., Canter, D.V. (1999). Differentiating stranger murders: Profiling offender characteristics from behavioral styles. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 17, 391-406.
144. Santilla, P., Hkknen, H., Canter, D.V., Elfgren, T. (2003). Classifying homicide offenders and predicting their characteristics from crime scene behavior. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 44, 107-118.
145. Schenker, N., Gentleman, J.F. (2001). On judging the significance of differences by examining the overlap between confidence intervals. The American Statistician, 55, 182-186.
146. Schmidt, F.L. (1996). Statistical significance testing and cumulative knowledge in psychology: Implication for training of researchers. Psychological Methods, 1, 115-129.
147. Scott, D., Lambie, I., Henwood, D., Lamb, R. (2003). Profiling stranger rapists: It's not so elementary, doctor Watson. American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 21, 31-49.
148. Smith, C. (1993). Psychological offender profiling. The Criminologist, 17, 244-250.
149. Smithson, M. (2003). Confidence intervals. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
150. Stevens, J.A. (1997). Standard investigatory tools and offender profiling. In J. L. Jackson D. A. Bekerian (Eds.), Offender profiling: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 77-91). Chichester, England: Wiley.
151. Torres, A.N., Boccaccini, M.T., Miller, H.A. (2006). Perceptions of the validity and utility of criminal profiling among forensic psychologists and psychiatrists. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 37, 51-58.
152. Trager, J., Brewster, J. (2001). The effectiveness of psychological profiles. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 16, 20-25.
153. Turco, R.N. (1990). Psychological profiling. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 34, 147-154.
154. Turvey, B. (1999). Criminal profiling: An introduction to behavioral evidence analysis. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
155. Van den Eshof, P., Schippers, C. (1998). Behavioural science-based criminal investigation expertise. In Case Analysis Unit (Ed.), Case Analysis Unit (BKA), Method of Case Analysis: An International Symposium (pp. 131-139). Weisbaden, Germany: Bundeskriminalamt Kriminalistisches Institut.
156. Verma, A. (1997). Construction of offender profiles using fuzzy logic. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategy and Management, 20, 408-418.
157. Vorpagel, R.E. (1982, January). Painting psychological profiles: Charlatanism, coincidence, charisma, chance or new science. The Police Chief, 156-159.
158. Wells, S., West, A. (1998). The national crime faculty and offender profiling: An eyewitness account of what happened. In Case Analysis Unit (Ed.), Case Analysis Unit (BKA), Method of Case Analysis: An International Symposium (pp. 113-124). Weisbaden, Germany: Bundeskriminalamt Kriminalistisches Institut.
159. West, A. (2000). Clinical assessment of homicide offenders: The significance of crime scene in offense and offender analysis. Homicide Studies, 4, 219-233.
160. Wilkinson, L., The Task Force on Statistical Inference, American Psychological Association. (1999). Statistical methods in psychology journals: Guidelines and explanations. American Psychologist, 54, 594-604.
161. Wilson, P., Lincoln, R., Kocsis, R.N. (1997). Validity, utility and ethics of profiling for serial violent and sexual offenders. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 4, 1-12.
162. Wilson, P., Soothill, K. (1996, January). Psychological profiling: Red, green or amber ? The Police Journal, 12-20.
163. Winerman, L. (2004). Criminal profiling: The reality behind the myth. Monitor on Psychology, 35, 66-69.
164. Witkin, G. (1996, April 22). How the FBI paints portraits of the nation's most wanted. U.S. News and World Report, 120, 32.
165. Woodworth, M., Porter, S. (1999). Historical foundations and current applications of criminal profiling in violent crime investigations. Expert Evidence, 7, 241-264.
166. Yeaton, W.H., Wortman, P.M. (1993). On the reliability of meta-analytic reviews: The role of intercoder agreement. Evaluation Review, 17, 292-309.