Disease progression in children with vertically-acquired HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa: Reviewing the need for HIV treatment

Current HIV Research

Volumn 5, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 139-153

  Little, Kirsty ^a   Thorne, Claire ^a   Luo, Chewe ^b   Bunders, Madeleine ^a   Ngongo, Ngashi ^b   McDermott, Peter ^b   Newell, Marie Louise ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b UNICEF   (United States)

Author keywords

Disease progression; Mortality; Paediatric HIV; Sub Saharan Africa; Treatment; Vertically acquired

Indexed keywords

COTRIMOXAZOLE; PLACEBO; RETINOL; ZIDOVUDINE; ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA; CHILD; CHILDHOOD MORTALITY; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMORBIDITY; DISEASE COURSE; DRUG EFFICACY; HEALTH CARE PLANNING; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; INCIDENCE; MATERNAL DISEASE; MATERNAL MORTALITY; MEDICAL LITERATURE; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; NUTRITIONAL SUPPORT; PATIENT CARE; PATIENT MONITORING; RECURRENT DISEASE; REVIEW; SEARCH ENGINE; SURVIVAL; VIRUS TRANSMISSION; BREAST FEEDING; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; FEMALE; INFANT; NEEDS ASSESSMENT; PRESCHOOL CHILD; STATISTICS;

AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA; ANTI-RETROVIRAL AGENTS; BREAST FEEDING; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; DISEASE PROGRESSION; DISEASE TRANSMISSION, VERTICAL; FEMALE; HIV INFECTIONS; HIV SEROPOSITIVITY; HUMANS; INFANT; MORBIDITY; NEEDS ASSESSMENT;

EID: 33947573776     PISSN: 1570162X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/157016207780077002     Document Type: Review

References (101)

1. WHO Collaborative Study Team on the Role of Breastfeeding on the Prevention of Infant Mortality. (2000). Effect of breastfeeding on infant and child mortality due to infectious diseases in less developed countries: a pooled analysis. The Lancet. 355: 451-455.
2. Adetunji J. (2000). Trends in under-5 mortality rates and the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 78: 1200-1206.
3. Anglaret X, Chene G, Attia A, Toure S, Lafont S, Combe P, Manlan K, N'Dri-Yoman T, Salamon R. (1999). Early chemoprophylaxis with trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole for HIV-1-infected adults in Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire: a randomised trial. Cotrimo-CI Study Group. The Lancet. 353: 1463-1468.
4. Bahl R, Frost C, Kirkwood BF, Edmond K, Martines J, Bhandari N, Arthur P. (2005). Infant feeding patterns and risks of death and hospitalization in the first half of infancy: multicentre cohort study. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 83: 418-426.
5. Bakaki P, Kayita J, Moura Machado JE, Coulter J, Tindyebwa D, Ndugwa CM, Hart CA. (2001). Epidemologic and clinical features of HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected Ugandan children younger than 18 months. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 28: 35-42.
6. Barnhart HX, Caldwell MB, Thomas P, Mascola L, Ortiz I, Hsu H-W, Schulte J, Parrott R, Maldonado Y, Byers R. (1996). Natural history of human immunodeficiency virus disease in perinatally infected children: an analysis from the pediatric spectrum of disease project. Pediatrics. 97: 710-716.
7. Bedell R, Heath KV, Hogg RS, Wood E, Press N, Yip B, O'Shaughnessy MV, Montaner JS. (2003). Total lymphocyte count as a possible surrogate of CD4 cell count to prioritize eligibility for antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected individuals in resource-limited settings. Antiviral Therapy. 8: 379-384.
8. Benjamin DK, Jr., Miller WC, Ryder RW, Weber DJ, Walter E, McKinney RE, Jr. (2004). Growth patterns reflect response to antiretroviral therapy in HIV-positive infants: potential utility in resource-poor settings. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 18: 35-43.
9. Blanche S, Newell M-L, Mayaux MJ, Dunn DT, Teglas JP, Rouzioux C, Peckham CS. (1997). Morbidity and mortality in European children vertically infected by HIV-1. The French Pediatric HIV Infection Study Group and European Collaborative Study. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology. 14: 442-450.
10. Bobat R, Coovadia H, Moodley D, Coutsoudis A. (1999). Mortality in a cohort of children born to HIV-1 infected women from Durban, South Africa. South African Medical Journal. 89: 646-648.
11. Bobat R, Coovadia H, Moodley D, Coutsoudis A, Gouws E. (2001). Growth in early childhood in a cohort of children born to HIV-1-infected women in Durban, South Africa. Annals of Tropical Paediatrics. 21: 203-210.
12. Bobat R, Moodley D, Coutsoudis A, Coovadia H, Gouws E. (1998). The early natural history of vertically transmitted HIV-1 infection in African children from Durban, South Africa. Annals of Tropical Paediatrics. 18: 187-196.
13. Brahmbhatt H, Kigozi G, Wabwire-Mangen F, Serwadda D, Lutalo T, Nalugoda F, Sewankambo N, Kiduggavu M, Wawer M, Gray R. (2006). Mortality in HIV-infected and uninfected children of HIV-infected and uninfected mothers in rural Uganda. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 41: 504-508.
14. Braitstein P, Brinkhof MW, Dabis F, Schechter M, Boulle A, Miotti P, Wood R, Laurent C, Sprinz E, Seyler C, Bangsberg DR, Balestre E, Sterne JA, May M, Egger M. (2006). Mortality of HIV-1-infected patients in the first year of antiretroviral therapy: comparison between low-income and high-income countries. The Lancet. 367: 817-824.
15. Carey VJ, Yong FH, Frenkel LM, McKinney RE, Jr. (1998). Pediatric AIDS prognosis using somatic growth velocity. AIDS. 12: 1361-1369.
16. CDC. (1991). Guidelines for prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia for children infected with human immunodeficiency virus. MMWR RR-2[40], 1-13.
17. CDC. (1995). 1995 revised guidelines for prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia for children infected with or perinatally exposed to human immunodeficiency virus. MMWR 44, RR-4.
18. CDC. (2001). Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. CDC, Atlanta, USA.
19. Chaisilwattana P, Chokephaibulkit K, Chalermchockcharoenkit A, Vanprapar N, Sirimai K, Chearskul S, Sutthent R, Opartkiattikul N. (2002). Short-course therapy with zidovudine plus lamivudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in Thailand. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 35: 1405-1413.
20. Chantry CJ, Byrd RS, Englund JA, Baker CJ, McKinney RE, Jr. (2003). Growth, survival and viral load in symptomatic childhood human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 22: 1033-1039.
21. Chintu C, Bhat G, Walker A, Mulenga V, Sinyinza F, Lishimpi K, Farrelly L, Kaganson N, Zumla A, Gillepsie S, Nunn A, Gibb D. (2004). Co-trimoxazole as prophylaxis against opportunistic infections in HIV-infected Zambian children (CHAP): a double-blind randomised placebo-controlled trial. The Lancet. 364: 1865-1871.
22. Coutsoudis A, Bobat RA, Coovadia HM, Kuhn L, Tsai WY, Stein ZA. (1995). The effects of vitamin A supplementation on the morbidity of children bom to HIV-infected women. American Journal of Public Health. 85: 1076-1081.
23. Coutsoudis A, Pillay K, Spooner E, Coovadia HM, Pembrey L, Newell M-L. (2005). Routinely available cotrimoxazole prophylaxis and occurrence of respiratory and diarrhoeal morbidity in infants born to HIV-infected mothers in South Africa. South African Medical Journal. 95: 339-345.
24. Coutsoudis A, Pillay K, Spooner E, Coovadia HM, Pembrey L, Newell M-L. (2003). Morbidity in children born to HIV infected women in South Africa: does mode of feeding matter? Acta Paediatrica. 92: 890-895.
25. Coutsoudis A, Pillay K, Spooner E, Kuhn L, Coovadia HM. (1999). Randomized trial testing the effect of vitamin A supplementation on pregnancy outcomes and early mother-to-child HIV-1 transmission in Durban, South Africa. South African Vitamin A Study Group. AIDS. 13: 1517-1524.
26. Dabis F, Bequet L, Ekouevi DK, Viho I, Rouent F, Horo, A, Sakarovitch C, Becquent R, Fassinou P, Dequae-Merchadou L, Welffens-Ekra C, Rouzioux C, Leroy V. (2005). Field efficacy of zidovudine, lamivudine and single-dose nevirapine to prevent peripartum HIV transmission. AIDS. 19: 309-318.
27. Dabis F, Elenga N, Meda N, Leroy V, Viho I, Manigart O, Dequae-Merchadou L, Msellati P, Sombie I. (2001). 18 month mortality and perinatal exposure to zidovudine in West Africa. AIDS. 15: 771-779.
28. Dabis F, Leroy V, Castetbon K, Spira R, Newell M-L, Salamon R. (2000). Preventing mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Africa in the year 2000. AIDS. 14: 1017-1026.
29. Dabis F, Msellati P, Dunn D, Lepage P, Newell M-L, Peckham C, Van de Perre P. (1993). Estimating the rate of mother-to-child transmission of HIV. Report of a workshop on methodological issues Ghent (Belgium), 17-20 February 1992. The Working Group on Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV. AIDS. 7: 1139-1148.
30. De Cock KM, Fowler MG, Mercier E, de Vincenzi I, Saba J, Hoff E, Alnwick DJ, Rogers M, Shaffer N. (2000). Prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission in resource-poor countries. Journal of the American Medical Association. 283: 1175-1182.
31. Doherty TM, McCoy D, Donohue S. (2005). Health system constraints to optimal coverage of the prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission prugramme in South Africa: lessons from the implementation of the national pilot programme. African Health Sciences. 5: 213-218.
32. Dorenbaum A, Cunningham CK, Gelber RD, Culnane M, Mofenson L, Britto P, Rekacewicz C, Newell M-L, Delfiraissy JF, Cunningham-Schrader B, Mirochnick M, Sullivan JL. (2002). Two-dose intrapartum/newborn nevirapine and standard antiretroviral therapy to reduce perinatal HIV transmission: a randomized trial. Journal of the American Medical Association. 288: 189-198.
33. Dray-Spira R, Lepage P, Dabis F. (2000). Prevention of infectious complications of paediatric HIV infection in Africa. AIDS. 14: 1091-1099.
34. Eley B. (2006). Addressing the paediatric HIV epidemic: a perspective from the Western Cape Region of South Africa. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 100: 19-23.
35. Eley B, Nuttall J, Davies MA, Smith L, Cowburn C, Buys H, Hussey G. (2004). Initial experience of a public sector antiretroviral treatment programme for HIV-infected children and their infected parents. South African Medical Journal. 94: 643-646.
36. Emodi IJ, Okafor GO. (1998). Clinical manifestations of HIV infection in children at Enugu, Nigeria. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics. 44: 73-76.
37. European Collaborative Study. (2004). Are there gender and race differences in cellular immunity patterns over age in infected and uninfected children born to HIV-infected women? Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 33: 635-641.
38. European Collaborative Study, Gray L, Newell M-L, Cortina-Borja M, Thorne C. (2004). Gender and race do not alter early-life determinants of clinical disease progression in HIV-1 vertically infected children. AIDS. 18: 509-516.
39. Evans-Gilbert T, Pierre R, Steel-Duncan JC, Rodriguez B, Whorms S, Hambleton IR, Figueroa JP, Christie CD. (2004). Antiretroviral drug therapy in HIV-infected Jamaican children. West Indian Medical Journal. 53: 322-326.
40. Fassinou P, Elenga N, Rouet F, Laguide R, Kouakoussui KA, Timite M, Blanche S, Msellati P. (2004). Highly active antiretroviral therapies among HIV-1 infected children in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. AIDS. 18: 1905-1913.
41. Gray L, Newell M-L, Thorne C, Peckham C, Levy J. (2001). Fluctuations in symptoms in human immunodeficiency virus-infected children: the first 10 years of life. Pediatrics. 108: 116-122.
42. Guay LA, Musoke P, Fleming T, Bagenda D, Allen M, Nakabiito C, Sherman J, Bakaki P, Ducar C, Deseyve M, Emel L, Mirochnick M, Fowler MG, Mofenson LM, Miotti PG, Dransfield K, Bray D, MMiro F and Jackson JB. (1999). Intrapartum and neonatal single-dose nevirapine compared with zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIV-NET 012 randomised trial. The Lancet. 354: 795-802.
43. Humphrey JH, Iliff PJ, Marinda ET, Mutasa K, Moulton LH, Chidawanyika H, Ward BJ, Nathoo KJ, Malaba LC, Zijenah LS, Zvandasara P, Ntozini R, Mzengeza F, Mahomva AI, Ruff AJ, Mbizvo MT, Zunguza CD. (2006). Effects of a single large dose of vitamin A, given during the postpartum period to HIV-positive women and their infants, on child HIV infection, HIV-free survival, and mortality. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 193: 860-871.
44. Hussey GD, Reijnhart RM, Sebens AM, Burgess J, Schaaf S, Potgieter S. (1998). Survival of children in Cape Town known to be vertically infected with HIV-1. South African Medical Journal. 88: 554-558.
45. Jackson JB, Musoke P, Fleming T, Guay LA, Bagenda.D, Allen M, Nakabiito C, Sherman J, Bakaki P, Owor M, Ducar C, Deseyve M, Mwatha A, Emel L, Duefield C, Mirochnick M, Fowler MG, Mofenson L, Miotti P, Gigliotti M, Bray D, MMiro F. (2003). Intrapartum and neonatal singie-dose nevirapine compared with zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: 18-month follow-up of the HIVNET 012 randomised trial. The Lancet. 362: 859-868.
46. Jean SS, Pape JW, Verdier R-I, Reed GW, Hutto C, Johnson WD, Wright PF. (1999). The natural history of human immunodeficiency virus 1 infection in Haitian infants. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 18: 58-63.
47. Jones SA, Sherman GG, Varga CA. (2005). Exploring socioeconomic conditions and poor follow-up rates of HIV-exposed infants in Johannesburg, South Africa. AIDS Care. 17: 466-470.
48. Kumar RM, Uduman SA, Khurranna AK. (1995). A prospective study of mother-to-infant HIV transmission in tribal women from India. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology. 9: 238-242.
49. Lallemant M, Jourdain G, Le Coeur S, Kim S, Koetsawang S, Comeau AM, Phoolcharoen W, Essex M, McIntosh K, Vithayasai V. (2000). A trial of shortened zidovudine regimens to prevent mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Perinatal HIV Prevention Trial (Thailand) Investigators. New England Journal of Medicine. 343: 982-991.
50. Lallemant M, Jourdain G, Le Coeur S, Mary JY, Ngo-Giang-Huong N, Koetsawang S, Kanshana S, McIntosh K, Thaineua V. (2004). Single-dose perinatal nevirapine plus standard zidovudine to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Thailand. New England Journal of Medicine. 351: 217-228.
51. Laufer MK, van Oosterhout JJ, Perez MA, Kanyanganlika J, Taylor TE, Plowe CV, Graham SM. (2006). Observational cohort study of HIV-infected African children. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 25: 623-627.
52. Lepage P, Msellati P, Hitimana D-G, Bazubagira A, Van Goethem C, Simonon A, Karita E, Dequae-Merchadou L, van de Perre P, Dabis F. (1996). Growth of human immunodeficiency type 1-infected and uninfected children: a prospective cohort study in Kigali, Rwanda, 1988-1993. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 15: 479-485.
53. Lodha R, Upadhyay A, Kabra SK. (2005). Antiretroviral Therapy in HIV-1 Infected Children. Indian Pediatrics. 42: 789-796.
54. Mandelbrot L, Msellati P, Meda N, Leroy V, Likikouet R, Van de PP, Dequae-Merchadoux L, Sylla-Koko F, Ouangre A, Ouassa T, Ramon R, Gautier-Charpentier L, Cartoux M, Dosso M, Dabis F, Welffens-Ekra C. (2002). 15 Month follow-up of African children following vaginal cleansing with benzalkonium chloride of their HIV infected mothers during late pregnancy and delivery. Sexually Transmitted Infections. 78: 267-270.
55. Matheson PB, Thomas PA, Abrams EJ, Pliner V, Lambert G, Bamji M, Krasinski K, Steketee R, Chiasson MA, Thea DM. (1996). Heterosexual behavior during pregnancy and perinatal transmission of HIV-1. New York City Perinatal HIV Transmission Collaborative Study Group. AIDS. 10: 1249-1256.
56. Mbori-Ngacha D, Nduati R, John G, Reilly M, Richardson B, Mwatha A, Ndinya-Achola J, Bwayo J, Kreiss J. (2001). Morbidity and mortality in breastfed and formula-fed infants of HIV-1 infected women. Journal of the American Medical Association. 286: 2413-2420.
57. McKinney RE, Jr., Wilfert C. (1994). Growth as a prognostic indicator in children with human immunodeficiency virus infection treated with zidovudine. AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 043 Study Group. Journal of Pediatrics. 125: 728-733.
58. Mermin J, Lule J, Ekwaru JP, Malamba S, Downing R, Ransom R, Kaharuza F, Culver D, Kizito F, Bunnell R, Kigozi A, Nakanjako D, Wafula W, Quick R. (2004). Effect of co-trimoxazole prophylaxis on morbidity, mortality, CD4-cell count, and viral load in HIV infection in rural Uganda. The Lancet. 364: 1428-1434.
59. Meyers TM, Pettifor JM, Gray GE, Crewe-Brown H, Galpin JS. (2000). Pediatric admissions with human immunodeficiency virus infection at a regional hospital in Soweto, South Africa. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics. 46: 224-230.
60. Mofenson LM. (2004). Successes and challenges in the permatal HIV-1 epidemic in the United States as illustrated by the HIV-1 Serosurvey of childbearing women. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine. 158: 422-425.
61. Mofenson LM, Harris DR, Moye J, Bethel J, Korelitz J, Read JS, Nugent R, Meyer W. (2003). Alternatives to HIV-1 RNA concentration and CD4 count to predict mortality in HIV-1-infected children in resource-poor settings. The Lancet. 362: 1625-1627.
62. Nachman SA, Lindsey JC, Moye J, Stanley KE, Johnson GM, Krogstad PA, Wiznia AA. (2005). Growth of human immunodeficiency virus-infected children receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 24: 352-357.
63. Nakiyingi JS, Bracher M, Whitworth J, Ruberantwari A, Busingye J, Mbulaiteye SM, Zaba B. (2003). Child survival in relation to mother's HIV infection and survival: evidence from a Ugandan cohort study. AIDS. 17: 1827-1834.
64. Newell M-L. (2001). Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV: challenges for the current decade. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 79: 1138-1144.
65. Newell M-L, Coovadia H, Cortina-Borja M, Rollins NC, Gaillard P, Dabis F. (2004). Mortality of infected and uninfected infants born to HIV-infected mothers in Africa: a pooled analysis. The Lancet. 364: 1236-1243.
66. Newell M-L, Cortina Borja M, Peckham C. (2003). Height, weight, and growth in children born to mothers with HIV-1 infection in Europe. Pediatrics. 111: e52-e60.
67. Newell M-L, Dunn DT, Peckham CS, Semprini AE, Pardi G. (1996). Vertical transmission of HIV-1: maternal immune status and obstetric factors. The European Collaborative Study. AIDS. 10: 1675-1681.
68. Newell M-L, Thorne C. (2004). Antiretroviral therapy and mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy. 2: 717-732.
69. O'brien DP, Sauvageot D, Zachariah R, Humblet P. (2006). In resource-limited settings good early outcomes can be achieved in children using adult fixed-dose combination antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 20: 1955-1960.
70. Obimbo EM, Mbori-Ngacha DA, Ochieng JO, Richardson BA, Otieno PA, Bosire R, Farquhar C, Overbaugh J, John-Stewart GC. (2004). Predictors of early mortality in a cohort of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected african children. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 23: 536-543.
71. Ota MO, O'Donaovan D, Alabi AS, Milligan P, Yamuah LK, N'Gom PT, Harding E, Ariyoshi K, Wilkins A, Whittle HC. (2000). Maternal HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection and child survival in The Gambia. AIDS. 14: 435-439.
72. Pijnenburg MW, Cotton MF. (2000). Monotherapy in an era of combination therapy: is there a benefit? Experience in HIV-1-infected symptomatic South African children. Annals of Tropical Paediatrics. 20: 185-192.
73. Pliner V, Weedon J, Thomas PA, Steketee RW, Abrams EJ, Lambert G, Greenberg B, Bamji M, Thea DM, Matheson PB. (1998). Incubation period of HIV-1 in perinatally infected children. AIDS. 12: 759-766.
74. Puthanakit T, Oberdorfer A, Akarathum N, Kanjanavanit S, Wannarit P, Sirisanthana T, Sirisanthana V. (2005). Efficacy of highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected children participating in Thailand's National Access to Antiretroviral Program. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 41: 100-107.
75. Qazi SA, Muhe LM. (2006). Integrating HIV management for children into the Integrated Management of Childhood Illness guidelines. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 100: 10-13.
76. Semba RD, Ndugwa C, Perry RT, Clark TD, Jackson JB, Melikian G, Tielsch J, MMiro F. (2005). Effect of periodic vitamin A supplementation on mortality and morbidity of human immunodeficiency virus-infected children in Uganda: A controlled clinical trial. Nutrition. 21: 25-31.
77. Severe P, Leger P, Charles M, Noel F, Bonhomme G, Bois G, George E, Kenel-Pierre S, Wright PF, Gulick R, Johnson WD, Jr., Pape JW, Fitzgerald DW. (2005). Antiretroviral therapy in a thousand patients with AIDS in Haiti. New England Journal of Medicine. 353: 2325-2334.
78. Shaffer N, Chuachoowong R, Mock PA, Bhadrakom C, Siriwasin W, Young NL, Chotpitayasunondh T, Chearskul S, Roong-pisuthipong A, Chinayon P, Karon J, Mastro TD, Simonds RJ. (1999). Short-course zidovudine for perinatal HIV-1 transmission in Bangkok, Thailand: a randomised controlled trial. Bangkok Collaborative Perinatal HIV Transmission Study Group. The Lancet. 353: 773-780.
79. Sharland M, Blanche S, Castelli G, Ramos J, Gibb DM. (2004). PENTA guidelines for the use of antiretroviral therapy, 2004. HIV Medicine. 5(Suppl 2): 61-86.
80. Sherman GG, Matsebula TC, Jones SA. (2005). Is early HIV testing of infants in poorly resourced prevention of mother to child transmission programmes unaffordable? Tropical Medicine and International Health. 10: 1108-1113.
81. Songok EM, Fujiyama Y, Tukei PM, Vulule JM, Kiptoo MK, Adungo NO, Kakimoto K, Kobayashi N, Genga IO, Mpoke S, Ichimura H. (2003). The use of short-course zidovudine to prevent perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus in rural Kenya. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 69: 8-13.
82. Spacek LA, Griswold M, Quinn TC, Moore RD. (2003). Total lymphocyte count and hemoglobin combined in an algorithm to initiate the use of highly active antiretroviral therapy in resource-limited settings. AIDS. 17: 1311-1317.
83. Spira R, Lepage P, Msellati P, van de Perre P, Leroy V, Simonon A, Karita E, Dabis F. (1999). Natural history of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in children: a five-year prospective study in Rwanda. Pediatrics. 104: e56.
84. Steiner F, Kind C, Aebi C, Wyler-Lazarevitch CA, Cheseaux JJ, Rudin C, Molinari L, Nadal D. (2001). Growth in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected children treated with protease inhibitors. European Journal of Pediatrics. 160: 611-616.
85. Taha TE, Kumwenda NI, Hoover DR, Kafulafula G, Fiscus SA, Nkhoma C, Chen S, Broadhead RL. (2006). The impact of breastfeeding on the health of HIV-positive mothers and their children in sub-Saharan Africa. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 84: 546-554.
86. Taha TE, Graham SM, Kumwenda NI, Broadhead RL, Hoover DR, Markakis D, van der Hoven L, Liomba GN, Chiphangwi JD, Miotti PG. (2000). Morbidity among human immunodeficiency virus-1-infected and uninfected African children. Pediatrics. 106: 77-86.
87. Taha TE, Kumwenda NI, Broadhead RL, Hoover DR, Graham SM, van der Hoven L, Markakis D, Liomba GN, Chiphangwi JD, Miotti PG. (1999). Mortality after the first year of life among human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected and uninfected children. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 18: 689-694.
88. The European Mode of Delivery Collaboration. (1999). Elective caesarean-section versus vaginal delivery in prevention of vertical HIV-1 transmission: a randomised clinical trial. The Lancet. 353: 1035-1039.
89. Thorne C, Newell M-L. (2002). Progresion de la enfermedad en ninos con infeccion vertical por HIV [Progression of disease in vertically HIV infected children in Europe]. Salud Ciencia Sociedad Iberoamericana de Informacion Cientifica (SIIC).
90. Verweel G, van Rossum AM, Hartwig NG, Wolfs TF, Scherpbier HJ, De Groot R. (2002). Treatment with highly active antiretroviral therapy in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected children is associated with a sustained effect on growth. Pediatrics. 109: E25.
91. Vetter KM, Djomand G, Zadi F, Diaby L, Brattegaard K, Timitè M, Andoh J, Adou J, De Cock KM. (1996). Clinical spectrum of human immunodeficiency virus disease in children in a West African city. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 15: 438-442.
92. Walker AS, Mulenga V, Sinyinza F, Lishimpi K, Nunn A, Chintu C, Gibb DM. (2006). Determinants of Survival Without Antiretroviral Therapy After Infancy in HIV-1-Infected Zambian Children in the CHAP Trial. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 42: 637-645.
93. Walker N, Schwartländer B, Bryce J. (2002). Meeting international goals in child survival and HIV/AIDS. The Lancet. 360: 284-289.
94. Walker N, Stanecki KA, Brown T, Stover J, Lazzari S, Garcia Calleja JM, Schwartländer B, Ghys PD. (2003). Methods and procedures for estimating HIV/AIDS and its impact: the UN-AIDS/WHO estimates for the end of 2001. AIDS. 17:2215-2225.
95. Wiktor SZ, Ekpini E, Karon JM, Nkengasong J, Maurice C, Severin ST, Roels TH, Kouassi MK, Lackritz EM, Coulibaly IM, Greenberg AE. (1999). Short-course oral zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire: a randomised trial. The Lancet. 353: 781-785.
96. Wiktor SZ, Sassan-Morokro M, Grant AD, Abouya L, Karon JM, Maurice C, Djomand G, Ackah A, Domoua K, Kadio A, Yapi A, Combe P, Tossou O, Roels TH, Lackritz EM, Coulibaly D, De Cock KM, Coulibaly IM, Greenberg AE. (1999). Efficacy of trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole prophylaxis to decrease morbidity and mortality in HIV-1-infected patients with tuberculosis in Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire: a randomised controlled trial. The Lancet. 353: 1469-1475.
97. Working Group on Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV. (1995). Rates of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Africa, America and Europe: results from 13 perinatal studies. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology. 8: 506-510.
98. Zaba B, Whitworth J, Marston M, Nakiyingi JS, Ruberantwari A, Urassa M, Issingo R, Mwaluko G, Floyd S, Nyondo A, Crampin A. (2005). HIV and mortality of mothers and children: Evidence from cohort studies in Uganda, Tanzania and Malawi. Epidemiology. 16: 275-280.
99. Zar HJ. (2004). Pneumonia in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected children in developing countries: epidemiology, clinical features, and management. Current Opinions in Pulmonary Medicine. 10: 176-182.
100. Zwi K, Pettifor J, Soderlund N, Meyers T. (2000). HIV infection and in-hospital mortality at an academic hospital in South Africa. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 83: 227-230.
101. Zwi KJ, Pettifor JM, Soderlund N. (1999). Paediatric hospital admissions at a South African urban regional hospital: the impact of HIV, 1992-1997. Annals of Tropical Paediatrics. 19: 135-142.