Epidemiology of MRSA and MSSA

Staphylococcus Aureus: Molecular and Clinical Aspects

Volumn , Issue , 2004, Pages 31-65

  Enright, Mark C ^a   Witte, Wolfgang ^b  

^a University of Bath   (United Kingdom)

^b ROBERT KOCH INSTITUTE   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 33947303979     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-898563-96-9.50007-5     Document Type: Chapter

References (164)

1. R. Aly., H.I. Maibach., H.R. Shinefield., A. Mandel., W.G. Strauss Bacterial interference among strains of Staphylococcus aureus in man J. Infect. Dis. 129 1974 720-724.
2. R. Aly., H.I. Maibach., H.R. Shinefield., A. Mandel S. aureus carriage in twins Am. J. Dis. Child 127 1974 486-488.
3. R. Aly., H.R. Shinefield., W.G. Strauss., H.I. Maibach Bacterial adherence to nasal mucosal cells Infect. Immun. 17 1977 546-549.
4. M. Aries de Sousa., H. de Lencastre., I. Santos Sanches., K.K. Kikuchi Totsuka K., Tomasz A Similarity of antibiotic resistance patterns and molecular typing properties of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates widely spread in hospitals in New York City and in a hospital in Tokyo, Japan Microb. Drug Resist. 6 2000 253-258.
5. C.A. Armstrong-Esther., J.E. Smith Carriage patterns of Staphylococcus aureus in a healthy non-hospital population of adults and children Ann. Hum. Biol. 3 1976 221-227.
6. G.A.J. Ayliffe., B.J. Collins Wound infections acquired from the disperser of an unusual strain of Staphylococcus aureus J. Clin. Path. 20 1967 442-445.
7. G.A.J. Ayliffe., J. Barb., B.J. Collins Dispersal of Staphylococcus aureus Lancet 2 1974 1573.
8. T. Baba., F. Takeuchi., M. Kuroda., H. Yazawa., K.-I. Akio., A. Oguchi., J. Nagai., N. Iwama., K. Asano., T. Naimi., H. Kuroda., L. Cui., K. Yamamoto., K. Hiramatsu Genome and virulence determinants of high virulence community acquired MRSA Lancet 359 2002 1819-1827.
9. C.J. Bailey., B.P. Lockhart., M.B. Redpath., T.P. Smith The epidermolytic (exfoliative) toxins of Staphylococcus aureus Med. Microbiol. Immunol. 184 1995 53-61.
10. P. Beltran., J.M. Musser., R. Helmuth., J.J. Farmer 3rd., W.M. Frerichs., I.K. Wachsmuth., K. Ferris., A.C. McWhorter., J.G. Wells., A. Cravioto., R.K. Selander Toward a population genetic analysis of Salmonella: genetic diversity and relationships among strains of serotypes S. choleraesuis, S. derby, S. dublin, S. enteritidis, S. heidelberg, S. infantis, S. newport, and S. typhimurium Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85 1988 7753-7757.
11. D.S. Berman., S. Schaefler., M.S. Simberkoff S. aureus colonization in intravenous drug abusers, dialysis patients and diabetes J. Infect. Dis. 155 1987 829-831.
12. X. Bertrand., M. Thouverez., D. Talon Antibiotic susceptibility and genotypic characterization of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains in eastern France J. Hosp. Infect. 46 2000 280-287.
13. C. Bisognano., P. Vandeaux., P. Rohner., P.P. Lew., D.C. Hooper Induction of fibronectin binding proteins and increased adhesion of quinolone-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by subinhibition levels of ciprofloxacin Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44 2000 1428-1437.
14. J.E. Blair., R.E.O. Williams Phage typing of staphylococci Bull. WHO. 24 1961 771-784.
15. D.S. Blanc., A.L. Banuls., P.M. Hauser., P. Moreillon., P. Francioli., M. Tibayrenc Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: phylogenetic relatedness between European epidemic clones and Swiss sporadic strains Microb. Drug Resist. 6 2000 231-238.
16. S. Bradley., M.S. Terpenning., M.A. Ramsey., L.T. Zarins., K.A. Jorgensen., W.S. Nottile., D.R. Schaberg., C.A. Kauffman Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus: colonization and infection in a long-term care facility Ann. Intern. Med. 115 1991 417-422.
17. D.S. Blanc., C. Lugeon., A. Wenger., H.H. Siegrist., P. Francioli Quantitative antibiogram typing using inhibition zone diameters compared with ribotyping for epidemiological typing of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus J. Clin. Microbiol. 32 1994 2505-2509.
18. J.N. Bruun Postoperative wound infection. Predisposing factors and the effect of a reduction in the dissemination of staphylococci Acta Med. Scand. 514 Suppl 1970 1-89.
19. F.M. Calia., E. Wolinsky., E.A. Mortimer., J.S. Abram., C.H. Rammelkamp Importance of the carrier state as a source of S. aureus in wound sepsis J. Hyg. Camb. 67 1969 49-57.
20. D.A. Caugant., K. Bovre., P. Gaustad., K. Bryn., E. Holten., E.A. Hoiby., L.O. Froholm Multilocus genotypes determined by enzyme electrophoresis of Neisseria meningitidis isolated from patients with systemic disease and from healthy carriers J. Gen. Microbiol. 132 1986 641-652.
21. CDC (2002) Staphylococcus aureus Resistant to Vancomycin. United States, 2002. 51, 565-567.
22. J.C. Colbeck., H.R. Robertson., W.H. Sutherland., F.C. Hartley The importance of endogenous staphylococcal infections in surgical patients Can. Serv.Med. J. 15 1959 326-331.
23. A.M. Cole Innate antimicrobial activity of nasal secretions Infect. Immun. 67 1999 3267-3275.
24. X. Corbella., M.A. Dominguez., M. Pujol., J. Ayats., M. Sendra., R. Pallares., J. Ariza., F. Gudiol Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage as a marker for subsequent staphylococcal infections in ICU-patients Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 16 1997 351-357.
25. M.I. Crisostomo., H. Westh., A. Tomasz., M. Chung., D.C. Oliveira de Lencastre The evolution of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: similarity of genetic backgrounds in historically early methicillin-susceptible and -resistant isolates and contemporary epidemic clones Proc, Natl, Acad, Sci USA 98 2001 9865-9870.
26. K. Crossley., B. Landesman., D. Zaske An outbreak of infections caused by strains of Staphylococcus aureus resistant to methicillin and aminoglykosides J. Infect. Dis. 139 1979 280-287.
27. C. Cuny., H.-H. Schassan., W. Witte Outbreak of nosocomial infections with two different MRSA-strains involved significance of genomic DNA fragment patterns in strains otherwise difficult type Epidemiol. Infect. 111 1993 55-61.
28. S.J. Davies., S. Ogg., J.S. Cameron., S. Poston., W.C. Noble S. aureus nasal carriage, exit-site infections and catheter loss in patients treated with continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) Peritoneal Dial. Int. 9 1989 61-64.
29. M.A. de Sousa., I.S. Sanches., M.L. Ferro., M.J. Vaz., Z. Saraiva., T. Tendeiro., J. Serra., H. de Lencastre Intercontinental spread of a multidrug-resistant methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clone J. Clin. Microbiol. 36 1998 2590-2596.
30. P. Drinka., J.T. Faulks., C. Gauerke., B. Goodman., M. Stemper., K. Reed Adverse events associated with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a nursing home Arch. Intern. Med. 161 2001 2371-2377.
31. G. Dzickan., A. Hahn., K. Thüne., G. Schwarzer., K. Schäfer., F.D. Daschner., H. Grundmann Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a teaching hospital: investigation of nosocomial transmission using a matched case-control study J. Hosp. Infect. 46 2000 263-270.
32. W. el-Adhami., L. Roberts., A. Vickery., B. Inglis., A. Gibbs., P.R. Stewart Epidemiological analysis of a methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus outbreak using restriction fragment length polymorphisms of genomic DNA J. Gen. Microbiol. 137 1991 2713-2720.
33. J. Embil., K. Ramotar., L. Tomance., M. Alfa., J. Conly., S. Cronk., G. Taylor., B. Sutherland., T. Lonie., E. Henderson Methicillin resistant S. aureus in tertiary care institutions in the Canadian prairies 1990-1992 Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 15 1994 646-651.
34. J. Ena., J.R. Bolaert., L.D. Boyken., H.W. van Landugt., C.A. Godard., L.A. Herwaldt Epidemiology of S. aureus infections in patients on hemodialysis Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 15 1994 78-81.
35. M.C. Enright., N.P.J. Day., C.E. Davies., S.J. Peacock., B.G. Spratt Multilocus sequence typing for the characterization of methicillin-resistant (MRSA) and methicillin-susceptible (MSSA) clones of Staphylococcus aureus J. Clin. Microbiol. 38 2000 1008-1015.
36. M.C. Enright., D.A. Robinson., G. Randle., E.J. Feil., H. Grundmann., B.G. Spratt The evolutionary history of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 28 2002 7687-7692.
37. M.C. Enright., B.G. Spratt Multilocus sequence typing: tracking the global spread of antibiotic-resistant and hyper-virulent strains of bacteria Trends. Microbiol. 7 1999 482-487.
38. N.H. Eriksen., F. Espersen., V.T. Rosdahl., K. Jensen Evaluation of methods for the detection of nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus APMIS 102 1994 407-412.
39. E.J. Feil., E.C. Holmes., D.E. Bessen., M-S. Chan., N.P. Day., M.C. Enright., R. Goldstein., D.W. Hood., A. Kalia., C.E. Moore., J. Zhou., B.G. Spratt Recombination within natural populations of pathogenic bacteria: short-term empirical estimates and long-term phylogenetic consequences Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA 98 2001 182-187.
40. C.E. Frasch., W.D. Zollinger., J.T. Poolman Serotype antigens of Neisseria meningitidis and a proposed scheme for designation of serotypes Rev. Infect. Dis. 7 1985 504-510.
41. S.E. Goldblum., W.P. Reed., J.A. Ulrich., R.S. Goldman Staphylococcal carriage and infections in hemodialysis patients Dial. Transplant. 7 1978 1140-1163.
42. E.J. Goldstein., D.M. Citron., C.A. Nesbit Diabetic foot infections. Bacteriology and activity of 10 oral antimicrobial agents against bacteria isolated from consecutive cases Diabetes Care 19 1996 638-641.
43. A.R. Gomes., I.S. Sanches., M. Aires de Sousa., E. Castaneda., H. de Lencastre Molecular epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Colombian hospitals: dominance of a single unique multidrug-resistant clone Microb. Drug Resist. 7 2001 23-32.
44. H. Gooder Association of a serum opacity reaction with serological type in Streptococcus pyogenes J. Gen. Microbiol. 38 1993 311-315.
45. S.L. Gorbach., A.G. Plaut., L. Nahas., L. Weinstein., G. Spanknebel., R. Levitan Studies of intestinal microflora. 2. Microorganisms of the small intestine and their relation to oral and faecal flora Gastroenterology 53 1967 856-867.
46. I.B. Gosbell., J.L. Mercer., S.A. Neville., S.A. Crone., K.G. Chant., B.B. Jalaludin., R. Munro Non-multiresistant and multiresistant methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in community-acquired infections Med. J. Aust. 174 2001 627-630.
47. J. Gould., E.J. Mc Killop The carriage of Staphylococcus pyogenes va. Aureus in the human nose J. Hyg. (Camb.) 52 1946 304-310.
48. R. Grady., D.P. BlancHauser P., J. Stanley Genotyping of European isolates of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by fluorescent amplified-fragment length polymorphism analysis (FAFLP) and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) typing J. Med. Microbiol. 50 2001 588-593.
49. R. Grady., G. O’Neill., B. Cookson., J. Stanley Fluorescent amplified-fragment length polymorphism analysis of the MRSA epidemic FEMS Microbiol Lett. 187 2000 27-30.
50. H. Grundmann., S. Hori., B. Winter., A. Tani., D.J. Austin Risk factors for the transmission of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in an adult intensive care unit: fitting a model to the data J. Infect. Dis. 1185 2002 481-488.
51. R.W. Haley., N. Cushion., F. Tenover., T.L. Bannerman., D. Dryer., J. Ross Eradication of endemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections from a neonatal intensive care unit J. Infect. Dis. 171 1995 614-624.
52. F.A. Hallman Pathogenic staphylococci in the anterior nares; their incidence and differentiation Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 36 1937 789-794.
53. S. Harbarth., N. Liassine., S. Dharan., P. Herrault., R. Auckenthaler., D. Pittet Risk factor analysis for persistent carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Clin. Infect. Dis. 31 2000 1380-1385.
54. B.C. Herold., L.C. Immergluck., M.C. Maranan., D.S. Lauderdale., R.E. Gaskin., S. Boyle-Vavra., C.D. Leitch., R.S. Daum Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in children with no identified predisposing risk JAMA 279 1998 593-598.
55. J. Henrichsen Six newly recognized types of Streptococcus pneumoniae J. Clin. Microbiol. 33 1995 2759-2762.
56. P.C. Hill., M. Birch., S. Chambers., D. Drinkovic., R.B. Ellis-Pegler., R. Everts., D. Murdoch., S. Pottumarthy., S.A. Roberts., C. Swager., S.L. Taylor., M.G. Thomas., C.G. Wong., A.J. Morris Prospective study of 424 cases of Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: determination of factors affecting incidence and mortality Intern. Med. J. 31 2001 97-103.
57. K.H. Hiramatsu Hanaki H., T. Ino., K. Yabuta., T. Oguri., F.C. Tenover Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clinical strain with reduced vancomycin susceptibility J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 40 1997 135-136.
58. Hiramatsu, K., Kuroda, M., Baba, T., & K. Okuma. (2002) In Diagnostic Molecular Microbiology, Persing D. (ASM press). In press.
59. Hu L., et al. Typing of Staphylococcus aureus colonising human nasal carriers by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis J. Med. Microbiol. 42 1995 127-132.
60. L. Hu., A. Umeda., S. Kondo., K. Amako Typing of S. aureus colonising human nasal carriers by pulsed field gel electrophoresis J. Med. Microbiol. 42 1995 127-132.
61. C. Isbister., E.B. Durie., P.M. Rountree., B.M. Freeman A Further Study of Staphylococcal Infection in the Newborn Med. J. Aust. 2 1954 897.
62. S.I. Jacobs., G.M. Williamson., A.T. Willis Nasal abnormality and the carrier rate of Staphylococcus aureus J. Clin. Path. 14 1961 519-521.
63. T.F. Jones., M.E. Kellum., S.S. Porter., M. Bell., W. Schaffner An outbreak of community-acquired foodborne illness caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8 2002 82-84.
64. C.R. Kay Sepsis in the home Brit. Med. J. 1 1962 1048-1052.
65. N. Kirmani., C.U. Tuazon., D. Ailing Carriage rate of Staphylococcus aureus among patients receiving long term hemodialysis Ann. Allergy 45 1980 235-237.
66. N. Kirmani., C.U. Tuazon., H.W. Murray., A.E. Parrish., J.N. Sheagren S. aureus carriage rate of patients receiving long-term hemodialysis Arch. Intern. Med. 138 1978 1657-1659.
67. Kluytmans, J.A.J.W. (1996) Nasal carriage of S. aureus: the key to preventing staphylococcal disease. Ph.D. thesis. Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
68. J.A.J.W. Kluytmans., J.W. Mouton., M.F.Q. VandenBergh., M.A.A.J. Manders., A.W.P.M. Maat., J.H.T. Wagenvoort., M.F. Michel., H.A. Verbrugh Food-initiated outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus analyzed by pheno- and genotyping J. Clin. Microbiol. 33 1995 1121-1128.
69. Kobayashi N., Taniguchi K., Kojima K., Urasawa S., Uehara N., Omizu Y., Kishi Y., Yagihashi A., I. Kurokawa Analysis of methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus by a molecular typing method based on coagulase gene polymorphisms Epidemiol. Infect. 115 1995 419-426.
70. I. Kondo., S. Sakurai., Y. Sarai., S. Futaki Two serotypes of exfoliatin and their distribution in staphylococcal strains isolated from patients with scalded skin syndrome J. Clin. Microbiol. 1 1975 397-400.
71. B. Kreiswirth., J. Kornblum., R.D. Arbei., W. Eisner., J.N. Maslow., A. McGeer., D.E. Low., R.P. Novick Evidence for a clonal origin of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus Science 259 1993 227-230.
72. R.C. Lancefield Current knowledge of the type specific M antigens of group A streptococci J. Immunol. 89 1962 307-313.
73. T. Leski., D. Oliveira., K. Trzcinski., I.S. Sanches., M.A. de Sousa., W. Hryniewicz., H. de Lencastre Clonal distribution of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Poland J. Clin. Microbiol. 36 1998 3532-3539.
74. R.C. Lewontin The genetic basis of evolutionary change 1974 Columbia University press New York.
75. M. Lundholm., B. Bergendahl Heat treatment to increase phage typability of Staphylococcus aureus Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 7 1988 300-302.
76. X.X. Ma., T. Ito., C. Tiensasitorn., M. Jamklang., P. Chongtrakool., S. Boyle-Vavra., R.S. Daum., K. Hiramatsu Novel type of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec identified in community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46 2002 1147-1152.
77. T.P. McAnally., M.R. Lewis., D.R. Brown Effect of rifampicin and bacitracin on nasal carriers of S. aureus Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 25 1984 422-426.
78. J.K. McCormick., J.M. Yarwood., P.M. Schlievert Toxic shock syndrome and bacterial superantigens: an update Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 55 2001 77-104.
79. M.E. Melish., L.A. Glasgow Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome: the expanded clinical syndrome J. Pediatr. 78 1971 958-967.
80. O. Melter., I. Santos Sanches., J. Schindler., M. Aires de Sousa., R. Mato., V. Kovarova., H. Zemlickova de Lencastre H Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clonal types in the Czech Republic J. Clin. Microbiol. 37 1999 2798-2803.
81. J. Merrer., F. Santoli., C. Appere-De Vecci., B. Tran., B. De Jonghe., H. Outin “Colonization pressure” and risk of acquisition of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a medical intensive care unit Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 21 2000 718-723.
82. D.R. Mest., D.H. Wong., K.J. Shimoda Nasal colonization with methicillin resistant S. aureus on admission to the surgical intensive care unit increases the risk of infection Anest. Analg. 78 1994 644-650.
83. W. Meyer A proposal for subdividing the species Staphylococcus aureus Int. J. System. Bacteriol. 17 1967 387-389.
84. A.A. Miles., R.E.O. Williams., B. Clayton-Cooper The carriage of Staphylococcus pyogenes (aureus) in man and its relation to wound-infection J. Path. Bact. 56 1944 513-524.
85. S.J. Milian., J.N. Baldwin., M.S. Rheins., H.H. Weiser Studies on the incidence of coagulase-positive staphylococci in a normal unconfined population Am. Publ. Hlth 50 1960 791-798.
86. W.R. Miller., A.R. Jay., R. Wing Staphylococcal pneumonia in influenza Arch. Intern. Med. 109 1962 276-286.
87. P.C. Moore., J.A. Lindsay Genetic variation among hospital isolates of methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus: evidence for horizontal transfer of virulence genes J. Clin. Microbiol. 39 2001 2760-2767.
88. F. Moreno., C. Crisp., J.H. Jorgensen., J.E. Patterson Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus as a community organism Clin. Infect. Dis. 21 1995 1308-1312.
89. C.A. Morin., J.L. Hadler Population-based incidence and characteristics of community-onset Staphylococcus aureus infections with bacteremia in 4 metropolitan Connecticut areas, 1998 J. Infect. Dis. 184 2001 1029-1034.
90. B. Moss., J.R. Squire., E. Topley Nose and skin carriage of Staphylococcus aureus in patients receiving penicillin Lancet i 1948 320-325.
91. J.M. Musser., V. Kapur Clonal analysis of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains from intercontinental sources: association of the mec gene with divergent phylogenetic lineages implies dissemination by horizontal transfer and recombination J. Clin. Microbiol. 30 1992 2058-2063.
92. J.M. Musser., P.M. Schlievert., A.S. Chow., P. Ewan., B.N. Kreiswirth., V.T. Rosdahl., A.S. Naidu., W. Witte., R.K. Selander A single clone of Staphylococcus aureus causes the majority of cases of toxic shock syndrome Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 87 1990 225-229.
93. J.M. Mylotte., S. Goodnough., A. Tayara Antibiotic-resistant organisms among long-term care facility residents on admission to an inpatient geriatrics unit: Retrospective and prospective surveillance Am. J. Infect. Control 29 2001 139-144.
94. J.M. Mylotte., A. Tayara Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: predictors of 30-day mortality in a large cohort Clin. Infect. Dis. 31 2000 1170-1174.
95. T.S. Naimi., K.H. LeDell., D.J. Boxrud., A.V. Groom., C.D. Steward., S.K. Johnson., J.M. Besser., C. O’Boyle., R.N. Danila., J.E. Cheek., M.T. Osterholm., K.A. Moore., K.E. Smith Epidemiology and clonality of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Minnesota, 1996-1998 Clin. Infect. Dis. 33 2001 990-996.
96. M. Nei Molecular polymorphism and evolution 1975 North Holland Publishing Co. Amsterdam.
97. E. Nevo., A. Beiles., R. Ben-Shlomo The evolutionary significance of genetic diversity: ecological, demographic and life history correlates Lect. Notes Biomath. 53 1980 13-213.
98. L.E. Nicolle., L.J. Strausbaugh., R.A. Garibaldi Infections and antibiotic resistance in nursing homes Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 9 1996 1-17.
99. W.C. Noble The dispersal of staphylococci in the hospital wards J. Clin. Path. 15 1962 552-558.
100. G.R. Nimmo., J. Schooneveldt., G. O’Kane., B. McCall., A. Vickery Community acquisition of gentamicin-sensitive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in southeast Queensland, Australia J. Clin. Microbiol. 38 2000 3926-3931.
101. W.C. Noble., R.D. Davies Studies on the dispersal of staphylococci J. Clin. Path. 18 1965 16-19.
102. W.C. Noble., H.A. Valkenburg., C.H.L. Wolters Carriage of Staphylococcus aureus in random samples of a normal population J. Hyg. (Camb.) 65 1967 567-573.
103. N.R. O’Sullivan., C.T. Keane The prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among the residents of six nursing homes for the elderly J. Hosp. Infect. 45 2000 322-329.
104. H. Ochman., R.K. Selander Evidence for clonal population structure in Escherichia coli Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 81 1984 198-201.
105. M.T. Parker Phage-typing of Staphylococcus aureus J.R. Norris., D.W. Ribbons Methods in microbiology 7B 1972 Academic Press London, United Kingdom 1-28.
106. M.T. Parker., E. Asheshov., J.H. Hewitt., L.S. Nakala., B.M. Brock Enteric staphylococcal infections in hospitals Annals of N.Y. Acad. Sci. 236 1974 466-484.
107. F. Parras., M. del Carmen Guerrero., E. Bouza., M. Bláazquez., S. Morena., M. Cruz Menarguez., E. Cerenado Comparative study of mupirocin and oral cotrimoxazole plus topical fusidic acid in eradication of nasal carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39 1995 175-179.
108. M.O. Paul., A. Lamikanra., A. Aderibigbe Nasal carriers of coagulase-positive staphylococci in a Nigerian hospital community Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 76 1982 319-323.
109. S. Peacock., I. de Silva., F.D. Lowy What determines nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus? Trends Microbiol. 9 2001 605-610.
110. J.E. Peacock., F.J. Marsik., R.P. Wenzel Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: introduction and spread within a hospital Ann. Intern. Med. 93 1980 526-532.
111. Peacock, S.J., C.E. Moore, A. Justice, M. Kantzanou, L. Story, K. Mackie, G. O’Neill, N.P.J. Day. Virulent combinations of adhesin and toxin genes in natural populations of Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Immun. 70:4987-96.
112. A. Pignatari., L.D. Boyken., L.A. Herwaldt., R. Hollis., I. Leme., R. Sesso., M.A. Pfaller Application of restriction endonuclease analysis of chromosomal DNA in the study of S. aureus colonization in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis patients Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 15 1992 195-199.
113. D. Pitet Compliance with hand disinfection and its impact on hospital acquired infections J. Hosp. Infect. 48 2001 40-46.
114. G. Prevost., B. Cribier., P. Couppie., P. Petiau., G. Supersac., V. Finck-Barbancon., H. Monteil., Y. Piemont Infect. Immun. 63 1995 4121-4129.
115. M.C. Rattazzi., J.G. Scandalios. G.S. Whitt Genetics and Evolution 10 1983 Alan R. Liss, Inc. New York Isozymes: current topics in biological and medical research.
116. C. Reagan Elimination of coincident Staphylococcus aureus hand carriage with intranasal application of mupirocin calcium ointment Ann. Intern. Med. 114 1991 101-106.
117. N.A. Rezende., H.M. Blumberg., B.S. Metzger., N.M. Larsen., S.M. Ray., J.E. McGowan Jr. Risk factors for methicillin-resistance among patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia at the time of hospital admission Am. J. Med. Sci. 323 2002 117-123.
118. V.T. Rosdahl., W. Witte., M. Musser., J.O. Jarlov Staphylococcus aureus strains of type 95 spread of a single clone Epidemiol. Infect. 13 1994 463-470.
119. A.S. Rossney., D.C. Coleman., C.T. Keane Antibiogram-resistogram typing scheme for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus J. Med. Microbiol. 41 1994 430-440.
120. A.S. Rossney., D.C. Coleman., C.T. Keane Evaluation of an antibiogram-resistogram typing scheme for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus J. Med. Microbiol. 41 1994 441-447.
121. P.M. Rountree Staphylococci harboured the people in Western Highland of New Guinea Lancet 1 1956 719-720.
122. P.M. Rountree., M.A. Beard Further Observations on Infection With Phage Type 80 Staphylococci in Australia Med. J. Aust. 2 1958 789-795.
123. P.M. Rountree., B.M. Freeman Infections Caused by a Particular Phage Type of Staphylococcus aureus Med. J. Aust. 2 1955 157.
124. R. Rychel., H. Mergerjan., O. Boger., C. Langefeld., W. Witte Outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a German tertiare care hospital Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 20 1999 353-355.
125. S. Salmenlinna., O. Lyytikäinen., J. Vuopio-Varkila Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Finland Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8 2002 602-607.
126. A. Samad., D. Banerjee., N. Carbarns., S. Ghosh Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization in surgical patients, on admission to a Welsh hospital J. Hosp. Infect. 51 2002 43-46.
127. I.S. Sanches., M. Ramirez., H. Troni., M. Abecassis., M. Padua., A. Tomasz., H. de Lencastre Evidence for the geographic spread of a methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clone between Portugal and Spain J. Clin. Microbiol. 33 1995 1243-1246.
128. V. Sebille., S. Chevret., A.J. Valleron Modelling the spread of resistant nosocomial pathogens in an intensive-care unit Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 18 1997 84-92.
129. R.K. Selander., B.R. Levin Genetic diversity and structure in Escherichia coli populations Science 210 1980 545-547.
130. C.M. Sewell., J. Clarridge., C. Lacke., E.J. Weinman., E.J. Young Staphylococcal nasal carriage and subsequent infection in peritoneal dialysis patients JAMA 248 1982 1493-1495.
131. J. Shuter., V.B. Hatcher., F.D. Lowy Staphylococcus aureus binding to human nasal mucin Infect. Immun. 64 1996 310-318.
132. D. Sissolak., A. Geusau., G. Heinze., W. Witte., M.L. Rotter Risk factors for nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus in infectious disease patients, including patients infected with HIV, and molecular typing of colonizing strains Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 21 2002 88-96.
133. C.B. Smith., V. Noble., R. Bensch., P.A. Ahlin., J.A. Jacobson., R.H. Latham Bacterial flora of the vagina during the menstrual cycle: findings in users of tampons, napkins, and sea sponges Ann. Intern. Med. 96 1982 948-951.
134. J.M. Smith., N.H. Smith., M. O’Rourke., B.G. Spratt How clonal are bacteria? Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90 1993 4384-4388.
135. D.R. Snydman., B. Sullivan., M. Gill., J.A. Gould., D.R. Parkinson., M.B. Atkins Nosocomial sepsis associated with interleukin-2 Ann. Intern. Med. 112 1990 102-107.
136. A. Stacey., K. Endersby., P. Chan., R. Marples An outbreak of methicillin-resistant and borderline methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection in a rugby football team Br. J. Sports Med. 32 1998 153-154.
137. M.J. Struelens., A. Deplano., C. Godard., N. Maes., E. Serruys Epidemiologic typing and delineation of genetic relatedness of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by macrorestriction analysis of genomic DNA by using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis J. Clin. Microbiol. 30 1992 2599-2605.
138. D. Talon., M.C. Woronoff-Lemsi., S. Limat., X. Bertrand., M. Chatillon., H. Gil., J.L. Dupond The impact of resistance to methicillin in Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia on mortality Eur. J. Intern. Med. 13 2002 31-36.
139. A. Tambic., E.G. Power., H. Talsania., R.M. Anthony., G.L. French Analysis of an outbreak of non-phage-typeable methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by using a randomly amplified polymorphic DNA assay J. Clin. Microbiol. 35 1997 3092-3097.
140. F.C. Tenover., R. Arbeit., G. Archer., J. Biddle., S. Byrne., R. Goering., G. Hancock., G.A. Hebert., B. Hill., R. Hollis Comparison of traditional and molecular methods of typing isolates of Staphylococcus aureus J. Clin. Microbiol. 32 1994 407-415.
141. C.U. Tuazon., J.N. Sheagren Increased rate of carriage of S. aureus among narcotic addicts J. Infect. Dis. 129 1974 725-727.
142. J.D. Turnidge., J.M. Bell Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcal aureus evolution in Australia over 35 years Microb. Drug Resist. 6 2000 223-229.
143. Y. Uehara Bacterial interference among nasal inhabitants: eradication of Staphylococcus aureus from nasal cavities by artificial implantation of Corynebacterium sp J. Hosp. Infect. 44 2000 127-133.
144. A. Van Belkum., J. Kluytmans., W. Vam Leeuwen., R. Bax., W. Quint., E. Peters., A. Fluit., C. Van den Brouckegrauls., A. Van den Brule., H. Koeleman., W. Melchers., J. Meis., A. Elaichouni., M. Naneechoutte., F. Monens., N. Maes., M. Struelens., F. Tenover., H. Verbrugh Multicenter evaluation of arbitrarily primed PCR for typing of Staphylococcus aureus strains J. Clin. Microbiol. 33 1995 1537-1547.
145. A. Van Belkum., N.H. Riewarts Eriksen., M. Sijmons., W. Van Leeuwen., M. Van den Bergh., J. Kluytmans., F. Espersen., H. Verbrugh Coagulase and protein A polymorphisms do not contribute to persistence of nasal colonisation by Staphylococcus aureus J. Med. Microbiol. 46 1997 222-232.
146. M. Van den Bergh., E.D. Yzermann., E.D.A. van Belkum., H. Boelens., M. Simons., H. Verbrugh Follow-up of Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage after 8 years: redefining the persistent carrier state J. Clin. Microbiol. 37 1999 3133-3140.
147. W. van Leeuwen., W. van Nieuwenhuizen., C. Gijzen., H. Verbrugh., A. van Belkum Population studies of methicillin-resistant and -sensitive Staphylococcus aureus strains reveal a lack of variability in the agrD gene, encoding a staphylococcal autiinducer peptide J. Bacteriol. 182 2000 5721-5729.
148. P. Vannuffel., P.F. Laterre., M. Bouyer., J. Gigi., B. Vandercam., M. Reynaert., J.L. Gala Rapid and specific molecular identification of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in endotracheal aspirates from mechanically ventilated patients J. Clin. Microbiol. 36 1998 2366-2368.
149. P. Villari., L. Iacuzio., I. Torre., A. Scarcella Molecular epidemiology as an effective tool in the surveillance of infections in the neonatal intensive care unit J. Infect. 37 1998 274-281.
150. C. Von Eiff., K. Becker., K. Machka., H. Stanner., G. Peters New Engl. J. Med. 344 2001 11-16.
151. P. Vos., R. Hogers., M. Bleeker., M. Reijans., T. Vandelee., M. Hornes., A. Frijters., J. Pot., J. Peleman., M. Kuiper., M. Zabeau AFLP - A new technique for DNA fingerprinting Nucleic Acids Res. 11 1995 4407-4414.
152. J. Walker., R. Borrow., V. Edwards-Jones., B.A. Oppenheim., A.J. Fox Epidemiological characterization of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated in the North West of England by protein A (spa) and coagulase (coa) gene polymorphisms Epidemiol. Infect. 121 1998 507-514.
153. B. Warshawsky., Z. Hussain., D.B. Gregson., R. Alder., M. Austin., D. Bruckschwaiger., A.H. Chagla., J. Daley., C. Duhaime., K. McGhie., G. Pollett., H. Potters., L. Schiedel Hospital- and community-based surveillance of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: previous hospitalization is the major risk factor Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 21 2000 724-727.
154. T. Weinke., R. Schiller., F.J. Fehrenbach., H.D. Pohle Association between S. aureus nasopharyngeal colonization and septicemia in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 11 1992 985-989.
155. H.J. Weinstein The relation between nasal-staphylococcal-carrier state and the incidence of postoperative complications N. Eng. J. Med. 260 1959 1303-1308.
156. A. White Increased infection rates in heavy nasal carriers of coagulase-positive staphylococci Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 30 1963 667-670.
157. R.E.O. Williams Healthy carriage of Staphylococcus aureus: its prevalence and importance Bacteriol. Rev. 27 1963 56-71.
158. R.E.O. Williams Epidemiology of airborn staphylococcal infection Bact. Rev. 30 1966 660-677.
159. R.E.O. Williams., M. Patricia-Jevons., R.A. Shooter., C.J.W. Hunter., J.A. Girling., J.D. Griffiths., G.W. Taylor Nasal staphylococci and sepsis in hospital patients Br. Med. J. 2 1959 658-662.
160. W. Witte., C. Braulke., D. Heuck MRSA-situation in Germany Hyg. Med. 25 2000 351-354.
161. W. Witte., C. Braulke., C. Cuny., D. Heuck., M. Kresken Changing pattern of antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus from German hospitals Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 22 2001 683-686.
162. W. Witte., M. Enright., F.J. Schmitz., C. Cuny., C. Braulke., D. Heuck Characteristics of a new epidemic MRSA in Germany ancestral to United Kingdom EMRSA 15 Int. J. Med. Microbiol. 290 2001 677-682.
163. W. Witte., R. Hummel., W. Meyer., H. Exner., R. Wundrak On the ecology of Staphylococcus aureus: characterization of strains from chicken Z. Allg. Mikrobiol. 17 1977 639-646.
164. J.P. Widdowson., W.R. Maxted., D.L. Grant The production of opacity in serum by Group A streptococci and its relationship with the presence of M antigen J. Gen. Microbiol. 61 1970 343-353.