Europe's Muslim youth: An inquiry into the politics of discrimination, relative deprivation, and identity formation

Mediterranean Quarterly

Volumn 18, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 89-112

  Franz, Barbara ^a  

^a RIDER UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COHORT ANALYSIS; IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION; ISLAMISM; POLICY IMPLEMENTATION; RACIAL DISPARITY; RACIAL SEGREGATION;

CENTRAL EUROPE; EURASIA; EUROPE; FRANCE; GERMANY; UNITED KINGDOM; WESTERN EUROPE;

EID: 33847776615     PISSN: 10474552     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/10474552-2006-036     Document Type: Article

References (104)

1. Robert Leiken, "Europe's Angry Muslims," Foreign Affairs (July/ August 2005);
2. Timothy Savage, "Europe and Islam: Crescent Waxing, Cultures Clashing," Washington Quarterly 27, no. 3 (2004): 25-50;
3. S. Enders Wimbush and Richard Weitz, "Facing Europe's Islamic Challenge," Tech Central Station, at www2.techcentralstateion.com/ 1051.
4. See also Peter Bergen and Swati Pandey, "The Madrassa Scapegoat," Washington Quarterly 29, no. 2 (2006): 117-25.
5. Robert Leiken, "Europe's Immigration Problem, and Ours," Mediterranean Quarterly 15, no. 4 (2004): 203-18.
6. Rohan Gunaratna "Al Qaeda: Status and Future Prospects," presentation at the Nixon Center Immigration and National Security Forum, Washington DC, 1 December 2004. Overview available at www.nixoncenter.org/index.cfm?action=showpage&page= immigratNatlSecur.html.
7. Sabine Kroissenbrunner, "Islam and Muslim Immigrants in Austria: Socio-Political Networks and Muslim Leadership of Turkish Immigrants" Immigrants and Minorities 22, nos. 2 and 3 (2003): 198.
8. Michael Taarnby, "Recruitment of Islamic Terrorists in Europe: Trends and Perspectives," research report funded by the Danish Ministry of Justice, 14 January 2005, at www.jm.dk/image.asp?page= image&objno=73027.
9. "Tales from Eurabia," Economist, 22 June 2006, at www.economist.com/opinion/displaystory.cfm?story_id=7086222.
10. Patrick Tyler and Don Van Natta, "Militants in Europe Openly Call for Jihad," New York Times, 26 April 2004;
11. "Moderate Muslims in Britain Worry the Iraq War Makes Recruiting Disillusioned Muslim Youth by Extremists Easier," Associated Press, 27 November 2004;
12. "Al Qaeda Today: The New Face of the Global Jihad," Frontline, 25 January 2005, at www.pbs.org;
13. Sebastian Rotella "Europe's Boys of Jihad," Los Angeles Times, 2 April 2005.
14. US Department of State, Annual Report on International Religious Freedom, 2004, at www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/. Most European countries do not include questions on religious affiliation in their census. The size of the Muslim population is therefore extrapolated from immigration statistics.
15. J. Risen and David Johnston, "Split at CIA and FBI on Iraqi Ties to al Qaeda," New York Times, 2 February 2003.
16. For example, see Yasemin Nuhoglu Soysal, Limits of Citizenship: Migrants and Postnational Membership in Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994);
17. Roger Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992);
18. Gerard Delanty, Citizenship in a Global Age: Society, Culture, and Politics (Buckingham, Eng.: Open University Press, 2000);
19. Christian Joppke, ed., Challenge to the Nation-State: Immigration in Western Europe and the United States (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998);
20. Eleonore Kofman, "Citizenship, Migration, and the Reassertion of National Identity," Citizenship Studies 9, no. 5 (2005): 453-67;
21. Eleonore Kofman, "Citizenship for Some but Not for Others: Spaces of Citizenship in Contemporary Europe," Political Geography 14, no. 2 (1995): 121-38;
22. Ruud Koopmans, "Germany and Its Immigrants: An Ambivalent Relationship," Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 25, no. 4 (1999): 627-47.
23. Data cited in Pew Center, "An Uncertain Road: Muslims and the Future of Europe," Decemher 2005, 3, at www.pewtrusts.com/ideas/ ideas_item.cfm?content_item_id=2767&content_type_id= 8&issue_name=Religion%20in%20public%20life&issue= 17&page=8&name=Grantee%20 Reports.
24. Riva Kastoryano, Negotiating Identities: States and Immigrants in France and Germany (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), 2.
25. Brubaker.
26. Results of the UK's 2001 census are available at www.statistics.gov.uk.
27. Fact sheets on UK ethnicity and religion are available at www.statistics.gov.uk/focuson/default.asp.
28. Kristin Archick, "The United Kingdom: Britain's Muslim Community and Islamic Extremism," in Muslims in Europe: Integration Policies in Selected Countries, ed. Paul Gallis, Kristin Archick, Francis Miko, and Steven Woehrel, (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2005), 10, at www.fas.org/sgp/ers/row/RL33166.pdf.
29. Pew Center, 3.
30. Open Society Institute, Muslim's in the UK: Policies for Engaged Citizens, November 2004, at www.eumap.org/topics/minority/reports/ britishmuslims.
31. "24 Festgenommene, Polizei Fahndet Weiter," Der Standard, 12/ 13 August 2006, 3.
32. Archick.
33. Data cited in Anthony King, "One in Four Muslims Sympathizes with Terrorists" Daily Telegraph, 23 July 2005, 6.
34. "Mittagsjournal," ORF Radio Austria, 13 August 2006.
35. Michael Taarnby, "Recruitment of Islamic Terrorists in Europe: Trends and Perspectives," Danish Ministry of Justice, 14 September 2005, 7.
36. Elaine Sciolino and Don Van Natta, "For a Decade, London Thrived as a Busy Crossroads of Terror," New York Times, 10 July 2005;
37. Steve Coll and Susan Glasser, "In London, Islamic Radicals Found a Haven," Washington Post, 10 July 2005.
38. Justine Vaisse, "Unrest in France, November 2005: Immigration, Islam, and the Challenge of Integration," Center on the United States and Europe, The Brookings Institution's presentation to congressional staff, 10 and 12 January 2006.
39. "The War of the Headscarves," Economist, 7 February 2004. There is no strict separation of church and state in the United Kingdom, as there is in France. The Church of England remains the established or official state church in England: the queen is the supreme governor of the church, and twenty-six bishops are members of the House of Lords.
40. Norbert Cyrus, Franck Düvell, and Dita Vogel, "Illegale Zuwanderung in Großbritannien und Deutschland: Ein Vergleich," in Migration and the Regulation of Social Integration IMIS Beiträge 24 (June 2004): 46-74.
41. BBC News, "Pakistani London," 6 June 2005, at http://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2005/05/26/ pakistan_london_feature.shtml.
42. Several UK government documents on relations with the Muslim community published from April to May 2004 were leaked to the Times (London) in May 2004.
43. See Robert Winnett and David Leppard, "Britain's Secret Plans to Win Muslim Hearts and Minds," Times, 30 May 2004.
44. This set of documents includes correspondence between Cabinet Secretary Andrew Turnbull and Home Office official John Gieve. They are available on the Internet from several sites, including www.globalsecurity.org/ library/report/2004/muslimext-uk.htm.
45. BBC News, "Muslim Hardship under Spotlight," 14 May 2006, at news.bbc.co.uk/l/hi/uk/4771233.stm.
46. Madeleine Bunting, "Young, Muslim, and British" Guardian, 30 November 2004, at www.guardian.co.uk/islam/story/0,,1362364,00.html.
47. Ibid.
48. Sciolino and Natta;
49. Steve Coll and Susan Glasser "In London, Islamic Radicals Found a Haven," Washington Post, 10 July 2005.
50. Frank Rusciano, Global Rage after the Cold War (New York: Palgrave, 2006), 33.
51. Ibid., 39.
52. Kenan Malik, "Multiculturalism Has Fanned the Flames of Islamic Extremism," Times (London), 16 July 2005.
53. Also see BBC News, "UK Multiculturalism under Spotlight," 14 July 2005, at news.bbc.co.uk/l/hi/uk/4681615.stm;
54. and BBC News, "Davis Attacks UK Multiculturalism," 3 August 2005, at news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/4740633.stm.
55. "Les critères raciaux restent interdits dans les statistiques," Le Monde, 16 September 2005. Of course, discrimination against Muslims is still possible, for example, based on a job applicant's name if the applicant is from North Africa or other parts of the Middle East, or on physical appearance.
56. Nancy Venel, "Francités, islamités,"
57. cited in Paul Gallis, "France: The Republican Ideal," in Gallis et al., 24-5.
58. Dounia Bouzar, (2005) "La Première génération de Français de confession musulman," in French Politics, Culture, and Society 23, no. 1 (2005): 103.
59. Jane Feedman, "Secularism as a Barrier to Integration? The French Dilemma," International Migration 42, no. 3 (2004): 5-27.
60. "Immigrants Are Caught between Cultures," Financial Times, 1 September 2004, 11;
61. "Hate Acts on Steep Increase in France," International Herald Tribune, 22 March 2005, 3;
62. "Le Modèle social français est à bout de souffle," Le Monde, 3 June 2005, 8.
63. Gallis, 24-5.
64. Vaisse.
65. Ibid.
66. Data cited in Peter Ford, "Deep Roots of Paris Riots," Christian Science Monitor, 4 November 2005.
67. BBC News, "French Muslims Face Job Discrimination," 8 December 2005, at news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4399748.stm.
68. "Tales from Eurabia."
69. Vaisse.
70. This is my translation. The original text is as follows: "Die Einwandererkinder sollen in den Banlieues zur Schule gehen und an ihre Zukunft denken. Viele tun das auch. Nur daß das nichts hilft. Denn ob sie nun mit fünfzehn die Schule abbrechen oder die Matura mit Bestnoten ablegen - arbeitslos werden sie sowieso. Und wenn doch mal einer Karriere macht als Grafiker oder Steuerbeamter, so bleibt er doch Franzose zweiter Klasse. Der Türsteher wird ihn nicht durchlassen, wenn er am Freitag abend in Saint Germain in die Disco will." Alex Capus, "Welche Unruhen? Während die Vorstädte brennen geht das bürgerliche Paris seiner Wege," Die Welt, 5 November 2005, at www.welt.de/data/2005/11/05/799001.html.
71. Vaisse.
72. Dominique Maillard, "The Muslims in France and the French Model of Integration," Mediterranean Quarterly 16, no. 1 (2005): 73.
73. Koopmans; Gabrielle Fröhlic, "Discrimination in German Immigration," Peace Review 16, no. 4 (2004): 475-84.
74. Peter Schneider, "The New Berlin Wall," New York Times Magazine, 3 December 2005.
75. Kastoryano, 71.
76. Statistischen Landesamt Berlin, "Einwohnerregisterstatistik: Melderechtlich registrierte Einwohner am Ort der Hauptwohnung in den Statistischen Gebieten von Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg am 31, Dezember 2005 nach Altersgruppen und Staatsangchörigkeit." Available at www.statistik-berlin.de/framesets/berl.htm.
77. Schneider.
78. Kastoryano, 73.
79. Schneider.
80. Data cited in Czarina Wilpert, "National Case Study: Muslim Youth in Germany: Focus on Youth of Turkish Origins" (paper presented at the "International Conference on Muslim Youth in Europe: Typologies of Religious Belonging and Sociocultural Dynamics, Edoardo Agnelli Centre for Comparative Religious Studies, Turin, Italy, 11 June 2004).
81. Francis Miko, "German Legacy Regarding Muslim Immigration and Asylum," in Gallis, 32.
82. Czarina Wilpert, "Racism, Discrimination, and Citizenship: The Need for Anti-Discrimination Legislation in the Federal Republic of Germany," in Challenging Racism and Discrimination in Britain and Germany, ed. Zig Layton-Henry and Czarina Wilpert (New York: Macmillan-Palgrave, 2003).
83. Schneider.
84. Ibid.
85. Ibid.
86. Ibid.
87. Wilpert, "National Case Study," 11
88. Ibid.
89. David Masci, "An Uncertain Road: Muslims and the Future of Europe" (Washington, DC: Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, 2005), at http://pewforum.org/publications/reports/ muslims-europe-2005.pdf.
90. Data cited in E. Engelen, "Towards an Explanation of the Performance Difference of Turks in the Netherlands and Germany: The Case for a Comparative Political Economy of Integration," Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie (Journal of Economic and Social Geography) 97, no. 1 (2006): 69-79.
91. Susanne Von Below, "Schulische Bildung, berufliche Ausbildung und Erwerbstätigkeit junger Migranten," in Materialien zur Bevölkerungswissehschaft 105b (2003),
92. cited in Wilpert, "National Case Study," 9.
93. Mechtild Gomolla and Frank-Olaf Radtke, Institutionelle Diskriminierung: Die Herstellung ethnischer Differenz in der Schule (Opladen, Germany: Leske and Budrich, 2002).
94. Data cited in Pew Center, 7.
95. Ali Gitmez and Czarina Wilpert, "A Micro-Society or an Ethnic Community? Social Organization and Ethnicity amongst Turkish Migrants in Berlin," in Immigrant Associations in Europe, ed. John Rex, D. Joly, and C. Wilpert (Gower, England: Aldershot, 1987).
96. Data cited in Pew Center, 1.
97. Data cited in ibid., 3.
98. "Tales from Eurabia.".
99. Maillard, 72.
100. Ibid.
101. This is not to say that the popularity of Islam and particularly its radical versions has not been increased by the rise of al Qaeda and other terrorist organizations and by the American war on terror.
102. Pew Center, 10.
103. David Rampe, "Poll Shows Bright View of Muslim Integration," New York Times, 7 July 2006, at www.nytimes.com/2006/07/07/world/ 07pew.html?_r=1&oref=slogin.
104. Ibid.