Australian framework for the commercialisation of university scientific research

Prometheus: Critical Studies in Innovation

Volumn 25, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 51-68

  Collier, Alan ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Australia; Commercialisation; R D; Research; Universities

Indexed keywords

COMMERCIALIZATION; INVESTMENT; RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT; UNIVERSITY SECTOR;

AUSTRALASIA; AUSTRALIA;

EID: 33847350153     PISSN: 08109028     EISSN: 14701030     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/08109020601172894     Document Type: Review

References (122)

1. Australian Government, Backing Australia's Ability - An Innovation Action Plan for the Future, Australian Government, 2001.
2. Australian Government, Backing Australia's Ability-The Australian Government's Innovation Report 2004-05, Australian Government, 2005
3. Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST), National Survey of Research Commercialisation Years 2001 and 2002, DEST, October 2004.
4. Australian Government, 2001, op. cit., p. 7.
5. Louis Tornatzky, Paul Waugaman and Denis Gray, Innovation U.: New University Roles in a Knowledge Economy, Southern Growth Policies Board, 2002.
6. BERD: Business Expenditure on Research and Development; GOVERD: Government Expenditure on Research and Development; HERD: Higher Education Expenditure on Research and Development.
7. Group of Eight, Research and Innovation: Australia's Future, 20 December 2000. (The Group of Eight is the representative group for Australia's oldest, 'sandstone' universities: www.go8.edu.au.)
8. US Domestic Policy Council, American Competitiveness Initiative: Leading the World in Innovation, February 2006.
9. UK Department of Trade and Industry, Excellence and Opportunity-A Science and Innovation Policy for the 21st Century, HMSO, 2000.
10. Industry Canada, Achieving Excellence, Investing in People, Knowledge and Opportunity, Canada's Innovation Strategy, The Right Honourable Jean Chrétien Prime Minister of Canada, Reply to the Speech from the Throne, January 2001.
11. Innovation Summit Implementation Group, Innovation: Unlocking the future: Final Report of the Innovation Summit Implementation Group, Report to the Prime Minister's Science, Engineering and Innovation Council (PMSEIC), August 2000.
12. Business Council of Australia, New Concepts in Innovation: The Keys to a Growing Australia, March 2006.
13. US Domestic Policy Council, op. cit.
14. UK Treasury, Science & Innovation Investment Framework 2004-2014, The Stationery Office, July 2004.
15. Industry Canada, People and Excellence: The Heart of Successful Commercialisation, Final Report of the Expert Panel on Commercialization, 2005.
16. Productivity Council, Public Support for Science and Innovation, Productivity Commission Draft Report, November 2006.
17. Derek Bok, Universities in the Marketplace: The Commercialization of Higher Education, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2003
18. The Allen Consulting Group, The Economic Impact of the Commercialisation of Publicly Funded R&D in Australia, Australian Institute for Commercialisation, Brisbane, 4 September 2003a
19. Industry Canada, Public Investments in University Research: Reaping the Benefits, Report of the Expert Panel on the Commercialization of University Research, Presented to the Prime Minister's Advisory Council on Science and Technology, 4 May 1999.
20. J. S. Metcalfe, 'The economics of evolution and the economics of technology policy', The Economics Journal, 104, 1994, p. 931.
21. In accordance with Australian Standard Research Classification (ASRC), Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), ABS 1297.0, 1998.
22. Sciences, per ASRC ABS 1297.0, 1998: Mathematical; physical; chemical; earth; information, computing and communication; agricultural, veterinary and environmental; and engineering and technology.
23. For example: Commerce, politics, accounting, history and law.
24. ABS 8112.0 expenditure by research field, for 2002-03, the latest year available.
25. ARC is the agency that funds most of the non-medical research conducted in Australian universities.
26. Australian Research Council, Research in the National Interest: Commercialising University Research in Australia, Australian Government, 1998.
27. Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST), Best Practice Processes for University Research Commercialisation: Final Report, DEST, 2002, at p. 47
28. quoting Louis Berneman in a tele-presentation to a Research Commercialisation Workshop for the Higher Education Review Secretariat, DEST, 1 August, 2002.
29. In 2000 there were six US universities and two Australian universities where licence income exceeded 10% of research expenditure: See Knowledge Commercialisation Australia, Forum and Fair of Ideas Discussion Paper, Knowledge Commercialisation Australia, March 2003, p. 5.
30. The Allen Consulting Group, 2003a, op. cit.; Bok, op. cit.
31. Hon Dr D. A. Kemp, Minister for Education, Training and Youth Affairs, Knowledge and Innovation: A Policy Statement on Research and Research Training, Australian Government, 1999; Australian Government, 2001, op. cit.
32. The Allen Consulting Group, A Wealth of Knowledge; The Return on Investment in ARC-funded Research, Australian Research Council, September 2003b.
33. Sinclair Davidson, 'Should government fund science?' Paper prepared for publication by Professor Sinclair Davidson, Dean (Research & Innovation) at RMIT.
34. Association of University Technology Managers, AUTM U.S. Licensing Survey: FY 2004, AUTM, Northbrook, IL, USA, 2005, at p. iii.
35. Tornatzky et al., op. cit., pp. 16-20. These authors, on behalf of economic development agencies in the Southern US, undertook an identification and analysis of the characteristics of the 12 best-performing US universities in terms of high-quality business-higher education partnerships.
36. In particular the following Commonwealth Acts: Patents Act 1990; Copyright Act 1968; Trade Marks Act 1995; Designs Act 2003; Plant Breeder's Rights Act 1994; Circuit Layouts Act 1989. Under section 51(xviii) of the Australian Constitution the Australian Parliament has power to make laws with respect to 'copyrights, patents of inventions and designs, and trade marks', which leaves State and Territory Parliaments to cover related intellectual property issues of confidentiality, trade secrets and such matters.
37. The number of Commonwealth and State fiscal programmes includes: 39 in commercialisation; 26 offering financing; 36 supporting linkages; six providing loans; 13 supporting regional development; 49 in R&D; 23 supporting start-up companies; and 23 promoting technology transfer/ diffusion/uptake. Source: Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources, Commonwealth and State Government Programs Supporting Innovation in Firms: At January 2003, 2003, Index A.
38. In this regard, see especially: Cameron Rider, Lillian Hong, Ann O'Connell, Miranda Stewart and Michelle Herring, Taxation Problems in the Commercialisation of Intellectual Property, The University of Melbourne, 2006 (also cited as IPRIA Report No. 01/06).
39. Linkage grants are part of the National Competitive Grants Program administered by the Australian Government and are specifically intended to encourage collaborative research with a particular emphasis on linkages with industry.
40. www.dest.gov.au/chiefscientist/default.htm.
41. www.dest.gov.au/sectors/science_innovation/science_agencies_committees/ prime_ministers_science_engineering_innovation_council.
42. www.biotechnology.gov.au/index.cfm?event=object.showContent&objectID= 53799C64-BCD6-81AC-197045E7DFCC6514
43. www.ausindustry.gov.au/content/azindex.cfm?Keyword= industry%20research%20and%20development%20(ir%26d)%20board.
44. www.dest.gov.au/sectors/science_innovation/science_agencies_committees/ coordination_committee_on_science_and_technology.htm.
45. www.rirdc.gov.au/.
46. www.dest.gov.au/sectors/higher_education/programmes_funding/ programme_categories/key_priorities/ business_industry_higher_education_collaboration_council.htm.
47. The Allen Consulting Group, The Contribution of the States and Territories to Australia's Science and Innovation System, Australian Government, Department of Education, Science and Training, 2003c.
48. As at February 2006: NSW Department of State and Regional Development; Vic Department of Innovation, Industry and Regional Development; Qld Department of State Development, Trade and Innovation; SA Department of Industry, Trade and Regional Development; WA Department of Industry and Resources; Tas Department of Economic Development; ACT Department of Economic Development; NT Department of Business, Economic and Regional Development.
49. Some of these State and Territory schemes are described in The Allen Consulting Group, 2003c, op. cit., pp. 45-6.
50. See The Allen Consulting Group, 2003a, op. cit., for a useful summary of Australian Government policies encouraging R&D in the periods 1983-97 (Chapter 3), and 1998-2003 (Chapter 4).
51. Under the Management and Investment Companies Act, 1983 (Cth).
52. Under the Pooled Development Funds Act 1992 (Cth).
53. Administered by AusIndustry, part of the federal Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources.
54. Such as the Tradex scheme, Space Concession, and Certain Inputs to Manufacture, all administered by AusIndustry.
55. Such as the R&D tax concession, allowing a tax deduction for eligible research expenditure of up to 175%.
56. Such as R&D Start, Pre-Seed Fund, Commercial Ready Program and Biotechnology Innovation Fund.
57. Such as the Building on Information Technology Strengths Incubator Program, Department of Communications, Information Technology and the Arts, Building on Information Technology Strengths (BITS) Incubator Program, Annual Report 2003-2004, Commonwealth of Australia, 2005; and its successor programme: ICTIP (ICT Incubator Program).
58. T. Turpin, 'CRCs and transdisciplinary research: What are the implications for science?', Prometheus, 15, 2, 1997, p. 253.
59. K. Fletcher, 'Incorporated limited partnerships: Venture capital's contribution to legal development', Australian Journal of Corporate Law, 17, 2004, p. 157; by the enactment of the Venture Capital Act 2002 (Cth).
60. Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST), Commercialisation Training Scheme Issues Paper, DEST, January 2006.
61. Rider et al., op. cit.; Australian Private Equity and Venture Capital Association (AVCAL), Early Stage Enterprises-Position Paper, AVCAL (in conjunction with Clayton Utz), 2005.
62. US Business - Higher Education Forum, Working Together, Creating Knowledge: The University - Industry Research Collaboration Initiative, 2001
63. Andrew Reamer, Larry Icerman and Jan Youtie, Technology Transfer and Commercialisation: Their Role in Economic Development, Economic Development Administration, US Department of Commerce, Washington, DC, August 2003.
64. Richard Lambert, Lambert Review of Business - University Collaboration, Treasury (United Kingdom), HMSO, 2003.
65. Roger Voyer, Goals, Strategies and Priority-Setting for R&D and Commercialization: A Survey of International and Provincial Practices, a background report prepared for the Canadian Advisory Council on Science and Technology, Final Report, 21 July 2003.
66. Partnership Act 1958 (Vic), Part 5, Partnership Act 1892 (NSW), Part 3, Partnership Act 1891 (Qld), Chapter 4, Partnership Act 1891 (SA), Part 3, Partnership Act 1963 (ACT), Part 6. ACT legislation has no separate Limited Liability Partnership provision (only Incorporated Limited Liability Partnerships), while Western Australia, Tasmania and the Northern Territory make no provision for Limited Liability Partnerships of any type.
67. Fletcher, op. cit.
68. Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST), CRC Directory 2004, DEST, May 2004.
69. Australia's metropolitan population comprises a little over 60% of the total population: ABS 1301.0 Australian Year Book 2001.
70. J. McFarlane, 'Collaborative research: The Australian experience', International Journal of Technology Management, 17, 4, 1999, p. 387.
71. Howard Partners, Evaluation of the Co-operative Research Centres Programme, Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST), 2003.
72. The number and areas of research of CRCs and other entities varies over time as funding and research priorities change; however, the fact remains that there are a significant number of university-related commercial research entities. See Australian Government, 2005, op. cit. 68. There are many others in the UK, including: Partnerships for Research and Innovation, Knowledge Transfer Partnerships, and Knowledge Transfer Networks.
73. There are many others in Canada, some national and some provincial, including: Collaborative Research and Development Grants, Ontario Centres of Excellence, Research Partnership Agreements, and University-Industry Program.
74. J. Yencken and M. Gillin, Australian University Spin-off Companies: Attitudes, Policies and Companies, Research Paper Swinburne University of Technology, 2002
75. J. Yencken, T. Cole and M. Gillin, Spin-off Companies from Universities and Other Public Research Agencies in Australia: Findings from Early Stage Case Studies, Swinburne University of Technology, Paper accepted for Twente University High-Tech Small Companies Conference, Enschede, The Netherlands, 11-12 June 2002.
76. J. Milton-Smith, 'The role of SMEs in commercialising university research & development: The Asia-Pacific experience', Small Business Economics, 16, 2, 2001, p. 141
77. Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources (DITR), Technology Diffusion within Small and Medium Enterprises in Australia: Report on the Effectiveness of Dissemination Methods, DITR, 2002.
78. C. Burgio-Ficca, 'The contribution of the higher education sector to Australian research and development', Australian Journal of Education, 45, 3, December 2001, p. 263 at p. 263.
79. The earliest Australian university commercialisation office was formed in 1959 at the University of New South Wales, but the creation of offices in universities has been generally quite slow, with only 10 established by 1992 (source: The Allen Consulting Group, 2003a, op. cit., p. 38).
80. Knowledge Commercialisation Australia, op. cit., at p. 11.
81. K. Debackere and R. Veugelers, 'The role of academic technology transfer organizations in improving industry science links', Research Policy, 34, 2005, p. 321
82. D. S. Siegel, D. A. Waldman, L. E. Atwater and A. N. Link, 'Toward a model of the effective transfer of scientific knowledge from academicians to practitioners: Qualitative evidence from the commercialization of university technologies', Journal of Engineering and Technology Management, 21, 1-2, March-June 2004, p. 115.
83. UniQuest is the commercialisation company of the University of Queensland: http://www.uniquest.com.au.
84. Uniquest Limited, Annual Report, 2004.
85. See http://www.swin.edu.au/corporate/knowledge/.
86. Lambert, op. cit., Recommendation 4.2.
87. Pub. L. 96-517, §6(a), 12 December 1980, 94 Stat. 3018 (35 USC 200 et seq.). Also known as the University and Small Business Patent Procedure Act of 1980.
88. Australian Research Council et al., National Principles of Intellectual Property Management for Publicly Funded Research, Australian Research Council et al., 2001 ('National Principles').
89. Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee, Ownership of Intellectual Property in Universities Policy and Good Practice Guide, Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee, 2002 ('Policy Guide').
90. National Principles, op. cit., p. 2.
91. Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee, the entity representing the interests of all Australian universities: www.avcc.edu.au.
92. Policy Guide, op. cit., p. 5.
93. Howard Partners, Changing Paradigms; Rethinking Innovation Policies, Practices and Programs; A Study of Innovation in Australian Businesses, A report to the Business Council of Australia, Howard Partners, January 2006; Australian Industry Group, Submission to the Higher Education Review, Australian Industry Group, 2002.
94. Auril, Universities UK and Patent Office, A Guide to Managing Intellectual Property: Strategic Decision-Making in Universities, Auril, 2000.
95. Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST), National Survey of Research Commercialisation Years 2001 and 2002, DEST, October 2004. A similar survey is being completed in 2006.
96. Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST), Evaluation of Incentives for Commercialisation of Research in Australian Universities: A Survey of Selected Australian Universities, DEST, March 2005.
97. In Australia, the Group of Eight research universities rank commercialisation as a criterion for promotion slightly higher (50% vs 42% for all universities); technology universities place noticeably greater emphasis on commercialisation as a criterion for promotion than universities on average (80% vs 42% for all universities); regional universities rank commercialisation as a criterion for promotion slightly lower (38% vs 42% for all universities). Figures here are derived from university published criteria for academic promotion to Level D (Associate Professor) compiled by the author.
98. www.ausicom.com.au.
99. www.kca.asn.au.
100. www.lesanz.org.au.
101. www.fasts.org.
102. www.atse.org.au.
103. www.airg.org.au.
104. For example: www.aussieopportunities.com.
105. Howard Partners, 2003, op. cit.; see also www.crca.asn.au.
106. www.avcal.com.au/.
107. www.bhert.com/default.htm.
108. Reported in KCA News, June 2005, p. 5. Uniseed now includes the commercialisation arm of the University of NSW, New South Innovations. See Uniseed at: http://www.uniseed.com/.
109. www.aigroup.asn.au.
110. www.aeema.asn.au.
111. www.atug.com.au.
112. www.aiia.com.au.
113. www.acs.org.au.
114. www.aimia.com.au.
115. www.acci.asn.au.
116. www.anzatechnet.com/
117. www.tpia.org.au/.
118. www.ixc.com.au.
119. J. M. Sime, The Commercialisation of Intellectual Property from Public Sector Research Establishments: A Discussion Paper, unpublished paper based on a report to the Australian Institute for Commercialisation (AIC) at the conclusion of a series of master classes conducted around Australia during 2003, AIC, March 2004.
120. Industry Canada, 2005, op. cit., pp. 9-10.
121. www.itiscotland.com.
122. www.wellcome.ac.uk.