Recommendations in pediatric antiretroviral therapy

Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy

Volumn 8, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 155-166

  Ikeda, Takehisa ^a   Ch'ng, Tong Wei ^a   Oleske, James M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MEDICINE AND DENTISTRY OF NEW JERSEY   (United States)

Author keywords

Antiretroviral resistance testing; Antiretroviral therapy; Fusion inhibitor; HIV DNA RNA polymerase chain reaction; Non nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor; Nucleoside anlogue reverse transcriptase inhibitor; Perinatal HIV infection; Protease inhibitor; Viral load; Zidovudine prophlaxis

Indexed keywords

ABACAVIR; AMPRENAVIR; AMPRENAVIR PHOSPHATE; ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT; ATAZANAVIR; CD4 ANTIGEN; DARUNAVIR; DIDANOSINE; EFAVIRENZ; EMTRICITABINE; ENFUVIRTIDE; INDINAVIR; LAMIVUDINE; LOPINAVIR PLUS RITONAVIR; NELFINAVIR; NEVIRAPINE; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; RITONAVIR; RNA DIRECTED DNA POLYMERASE INHIBITOR; STAVUDINE; TENOFOVIR; TIPRANAVIR; VIRUS ANTIBODY; VIRUS DNA; VIRUS RNA; ZIDOVUDINE;

ADVISORY COMMITTEE; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIBODY DETECTION; BONE DISEASE; BONE MARROW SUPPRESSION; BREAST FEEDING; CD4+ T LYMPHOCYTE; CESAREAN SECTION; CHILD; CHILD HEALTH CARE; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE MARKER; DNA DETERMINATION; DYSLIPIDEMIA; GOVERNMENT; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; INFECTION PREVENTION; INSULIN RESISTANCE; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION; LOW DRUG DOSE; LYMPHOCYTE COUNT; METABOLIC DISORDER; MONOTHERAPY; NEUROTOXICITY; PANCREATITIS; PATHOGENESIS; PATIENT ATTITUDE; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PATIENT EDUCATION; PATIENT MONITORING; PERINATAL PERIOD; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRENATAL CARE; REVIEW; RNA ANALYSIS; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; TERATOGENICITY; TREATMENT INDICATION; VIRUS TRANSMISSION;

ADOLESCENT; ANTI-HIV AGENTS; CD4 LYMPHOCYTE COUNT; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; DISEASE PROGRESSION; DRUG ADMINISTRATION SCHEDULE; DRUG RESISTANCE, VIRAL; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; INFANT; INFANT, NEWBORN; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; RNA, VIRAL;

EID: 33846782905     PISSN: 14656566     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1517/14656566.8.2.155     Document Type: Review

References (73)

1. WORKING GROUP ON ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY: National Pediatric HIV Resource Center. Antiretroviral therapy and medical management of the human immunodeficiency virus-infected child. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. (1993) 12(6):513-522.
2. CONNOR EM, SPERLING RS, GELBER R et al.: Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus Type 1 with zidovudine treatment. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 076 Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. (1994) 331(18):1173-1180.
3. MOFENSON LM: Technical report: perinatal human immunodeficiency virus testing and prevention of transmission. Committee on Pediatric AIDs. Pediatrics (2000) 106(6):E88.
4. CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION: Revised guidelines for HIV counseling, testing, and referral and revised recommendations for HIV screening of pregnant women. MMWR (2001) 50 (RR-19): 1-110.
5. AMERICAN COLLEGE OF OBSTETRICIANS AND GYNECOLOGISTS: Human immunodeficiency virus infections in pregnancy. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. (1997) 57(1):73-80.
6. SHEARER WT, ROSENBLATT HM, GELMAN RS et al.: Lymphocyte subsets in healthy children from birth through 18 years of age: the Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group P 1009 study. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. (2003) 112(5):973-980.
7. Age-related standards for T lymphocyte subsets based on uninfected children born to human immunodeficiency virus 1-infected women. The European Collaborative Study. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. (1992) 11(12):1018-1026.
8. CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION: 1994 revised classification system for human immunodeficiency virus infection in children less than 13 years of age. MMWR (1994) 43(RR-12):1-10.
9. DUNN D: Short-term risk of disease progression in HIV-1-infected children receiving no antiretroviral therapy or zidovudine monotherapy: a meta-analysis. Lancet (2003) 362(9396):1605-1611.
10. Predictive value of absolute CD4 cell count for disease progression in untreated HIV-1-infected children. AIDS (2006) 20(9):1289-1294.
11. MOFENSON LM, KORELITZ J, MEYER WA III et al.: The relationship between serum human immunodeficiency virus Type 1 (HIV-1) RNA level, CD4 lymphocyte percent, and long-term mortality risk in HIV-1-infected children. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Intravenous Immunoglobulin Clinical Trial Study Group. J. Infect. Dis. (1997) 175(5):1029-1038.
12. SHEARER WT, QUINN TC, LARUSSA P et al.: Viral load and disease progression in infants infected with human immunodeficiency virus Type 1. Women and Infants Transmission Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. (1997) 336(19):1337-1342.
13. PALUMBO PE, KWOK S, WATERS S et al.: Viral measurement by polymerase chain reaction-based assays in human immunodeficiency virus-infected infants. J. Pediatr. (1995) 126(4):592-595.
14. ABRAMS EJ, WEEDON J, STEKETEE RW et al: Association of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) load early in life with disease progression among HIV-infected infants. New York City Perinatal HIV Transmission Collaborative Study Group. J. Infect. Dis. (1998) 178(1):101-108.
15. PALUMBO PE, RASKINO C, FISCUS S et al.: Predictive value of quantitative plasma HIV RNA and CD4+ lymphocyte count in HIV-infected infants and children. JAMA (1998) 279(10):756-761.
16. MCINTOSH K, SHEVITZ A, ZAKNUN D et al.: Age- and time-related changes in extracellular viral load in children vertically infected by human immunodeficiency virus. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. (1996) 15(12):1087-1091.
17. SCHNEIDER MB: Physical examination. In: Comprehensive Adolescent Health Care. Friedman SB et al (Eds) Mosby-Year Book, Inc., St. Louis, MO (1998):69-80.
18. CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION: Guidelines for using antiretroviral agents in HIV-infected adults and adolescents. MMWR (October 10, 2006).
19. CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION: Public Health Service Task Force recommendations for the use of antiretroviral drugs in pregnant women infected with HIV-1 for maternal health and for reducing perinatal HIV-1 transmission in the United States. MMWR (2005).
20. PATERSON DL, SWINDELLS S, MOHR J et al: Adherence to protease inhibitor therapy and outcomes in parients with HIV infection. Ann. Intern. Med. (2000) 133(1):21-30.
21. HOWARD AA, ARNSTEN JH, LO Y et al: A prospective study of adherence and viral load in a large multi-center cohort of HIV-infected women. AIDS (2002) 16(16):2175-2182.
22. WATSON DC, FARLEY JJ: Efficacy of and adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy in children infected with human immunodeficiency virus Type 1. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. (1999) 18(8):682-689.
23. BELZER ME, FUCHS DN, LUFTMAN GS, TUCKER DJ: Antiretroviral adherence issues among HIV-positive adolescents and young adults. J. Adolesc. Health (1999) 25(5):316-319.
24. CZYZEWSKI DI, RUNYAN D, LOPEZ MA et al.: Teaching and maintaining pill swallowing in HIV-infected children. AIDS Read. (2000) 10(2):88-94.
25. SHINGADIA D, VIANI RM, YOGEV R et al: Gastrostomy tube insertion for improvement of adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy in pediatric patients with human immunodeficiency virus. Pediatrics (2000) 105(6):E80.
26. REYNOLDS E, BERRIEN V, ACOSTA-GLYNN C, SALAZAR JC: Home based, intense, nursing intervention trial improves adherence to HAART in HIV infected children. Pediatric Academic Societies Annual Meeting. Baltimore, MD (April 28 - May 1 2001).
27. MITTY JA, STONE VE, SANDS M et al.: Directly observed therapy for the treatment of people with human immunodeficiency virus infection: a work in progress. Clin. Infect. Dis. (2002) 34(7):984-990.
28. PIZZO PA, EDDY J, FALLOON J et al.: Effect of continuous intravenous infusion of zidovudine (AZT) in children with symptomatic HIV infection. N. Engl. J. Med. (1988) 319(14):889-896.
29. MCKINNEY RE Jr, MAHA MA, CONNOR EM et al.: A multicenter trial of oral zidovudine in children with advanced human immunodeficiency virus disease. The Protocol 043 Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. (1991) 324(15):1018-1025.
30. LEWIS LL, VENZON D, CHURCH J et al.: Lamivudine in children with human immunodeficiency virus infection: a Phase I/II study. The National Cancer Institute Pediatric Branch-Human Immunodeficiency Virus Working Group. J. Infect. Dis. (1996) 174(1):16-25.
31. BUTLER KM, HUSSON RN, BALIS FM et al.: Dideoxyinosine in children with symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. (1991) 324(3):137-144.
32. RESINO S, RESINO R, MICHELOUD D et al.: Long-term effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy in pretreated, vertically HIV Type 1-infected children: 6 years of follow-up. Clin. Infect. Dis. (2006) 42(6):862-869.
33. MCKINNEY RE Jr, JOHNSON GM, STANLEY K et al.: A randomized study of combined zidovudine-lamivudine versus didanosine monotherapy in children with symptomatic therapy-naive HIV-1 infection. The Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 300 Study Team. J. Pediatr. (1998) 133(4):500-508.
34. A randomized double-blind trial of the addition of lamivudine or matching placebo to current nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitor therapy in HIV-infected children: the PENTA-4 trial. Paediatric European Network for Treatment of AIDS. Aids (1998) 12(14):F151-F160.
35. VIANI RM, ARANETA MR, DEVILLE JG, SPECTOR SA: Decrease in hospitalization and mortality rates among children with perinatally acquired HIV Type 1 infection receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis. (2004) 39(5):725-731.
36. STORM DS, BOLAND MG, GORTMAKER SL et al.: Protease inhibitor combination therapy, severity of illness, and quality of life among children with perinatally acquired HIV-1 infection. Pediatrics (2005) 115(2):e173-e182.
37. SHANBHAG MC, RUTSTEIN RM, ZAOUTIS T et al: Neurocognitive functioning in pediatric human immunodeficiency virus infection: effects of combined therapy. Arch. Pediatr. Adolescent Med. (2005) 159(7):651-656.
38. SELIK RM, LINDEGREN ML: Changes in deaths reported with human immunodeficiency virus infection among United States children less than thirteen years old, 1987 through 1999. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. (2003) 22(7):635-641.
39. NACHMAN SA, LINDSEY JC, MOYE J et al.: Growth of human immunodeficiency virus-infected children receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. (2005) 24(4):352-357.
40. MCCONNELL MS, BYERS RH, FREDERICK T et al.: Trends in antiretroviral therapy use and survival rates for a large cohort of HIV-infected children and adolescents in the United States, 1989-2001. J. Acquired Immune Def. Synd. (2005) 38(4):488-494.
41. GORTMAKER SL, HUGHES M, CERVIA J et al: Effect of combination therapy including protease inhibitors on mortality among children and adolescents infected with HIV-1. N. Engl. J. Med. (2001) 345(21):1522-1528.
42. GIBB DM, DUONG T, TOOKEY PA et al.: Decline in mortality, AIDS, and hospital admissions in perinatally HIV-1 infected children in the United Kingdom and Ireland. Br. Med. J. (2003) 327(7422):1019.
43. DE MARTINO M, TOVO PA, BALDUCCI M et al.: Reduction in mortality with availability of antiretroviral therapy for children with perinatal HIV-1 infection. Italian Register for HIV Infection in Children and the Italian National AIDS Registry. JAMA (2000) 284(2):190-197.
44. CHIRIBOGA CA, FLEISHMAN S, CHAMPION S, GAYE-ROBINSON L, ABRAMS EJ: Incidence and prevalence of HIV encephalopathy in children with HIV infection receiving highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART). J. Pediatr. (2005) 146(3):402-407.
45. ABRAMS EJ, WIENER J, CARTER R et al.: Maternal health factors and early pediatric antiretroviral therapy influence the rate of perinatal HIV-1 disease progression in children. AIDS (2003) 17(6):867-877.
46. IDEMYOR V: Continuing debate over HIV therapy initiation. HIV Clin. Trials (2002) 3(2):173-176.
47. LUZURIAGA K, MCMANUS M, CATALINA M et al.: Early therapy of vertical human immunodeficiency virus Type 1 (HIV-1) infection: control of viral replication and absence of persistent HIV-1-specific immune responses. J. Virol. (2000) 74(15):6984-6991.
48. HAINAUT M, PELTIER CA, GERARD M et al.: Effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy initiated before the age of 2 months in infants vertically infected with human immunodeficiency virus Type 1. Eur. J. Pediatr. (2000) 159(10):778-782.
49. FAYE A, BERTONE C, TEGLAS JP et al.: Early multitherapy including a protease inhibitor for human immunodeficiency virus Type 1-infected infants. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. (2002) 21(6):518-525.
50. ABOULKER JP, BABIKER A, CHAIX ML et al.: Highly active antiretroviral therapy started in infants under 3 months of age:72-week follow-up for CD4 cell count, viral load and drug resistance outcome. AIDS (2004) 18(2):237-245.
51. ABRAMS EJ, WEEDON J, BERTOLLI J et al.: Aging cohort of perinatally human immunodeficiency virus-infected children in New York City. New York City Pediatric Surveillance of Disease Consortium. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. (2001) 20(5):511-517.
52. GALLI L, DE MARTINO M, TOVO PA, GABIANO C, ZAPPA M: Predictive value of the HIV paediatric classification system for the long-term course of perinatally infected children. Int. J. Epidemiol. (2000) 29(3):573-578.
53. KLINE MW, VAN DYKE RB, LINDSEY JC et al.: A randomized comparative trial of stavudine (d4T) versus zidovudine (ZDV, AZT) in children with human immunodeficiency virus infection. AIDS Clinical Trials Group 240 Team. Pediatrics (1998) 101(2):214-220.
54. MUELLER BU, NELSON RP, JR., SLEASMAN J et al.: A Phase I/II study of the protease inhibitor ritonavir in children with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pediatrics (1998) 101(3 Pt 1):335-343.
55. KROGSTAD P, WIZNIA A, LUZURIAGA K et al.: Treatment of human immunodeficiency virus 1-infected infants and children with the protease inhibitor nelfinavir mesylate. Clin. Infect. Dis. (1999) 28(5):1109-1118.
56. KROGSTAD P, LEE S, JOHNSON G et al.: Nucleoside-analogue reverse-transcriptase inhibitors plus nevirapine, nelfinavir, or ritonavir for pretreated children infected with human immunodeficiency virus Type 1. Clin. Infect. Dis. (2002) 34(7):991-1001.
57. Comparison of dual nucleoside-analogue reverse-transcriptase inhibitor regimens with and without nelfinavir in children with HIV-1 who have not previously been treated: the PENTA 5 randomised trial. Lancet (2002) 359(9308):733-740.
58. CHADWICK EG, RODMAN JH, BRITTO P et al.: Ritonavir-based highly active antiretroviral therapy in human immunodeficiency virus Type 1-infected infants younger than 24 months of age. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. (2005) 24(9):793-800.
59. SAEZ-LLORENS X, VIOLARI A, DEETZ CO et al.: Forty-eight-week evaluation of lopinavir/ritonavir, a new protease inhibitor, in human immunodeficiency virus-infected children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. (2003) 22(3):216-224.
60. VAN LETH F, PHANUPHAK P, RUXRUNGTHAM K et al.: Comparison of first-line antiretroviral therapy with regimens including nevirapine, efavirenz, or both drugs, plus stavudine and lamivudine: a randomised open-label trial, the 2NN Study. Lancet (2004) 363(9417):1253-1263.
61. SULKOWSKI MS, THOMAS DL, MEHTA SH, CHAISSON RE, MOORE RD: Hepatotoxicity associated with nevirapine or efavirenz-containing antiretroviral therapy: role of hepatitis C and B infections. Hepatology (2002) 35(1):182-189.
62. GIBB DM GH, SAIDI Y, PILLAY D et al.: 3TC+ABC maintains virological superiority over ZDV+3TC and ZDV+ABC beyond 5 years in children: the PENTA 5 trial. In: XVI International AIDS Conference. Toronto, Canada (2006) WEAB0302.
63. WIZNIA A, STANLEY K, KROGSTAD P et al.: Combination nucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitor(s) plus nevirapine, nelfinavir, or ritonavir in stable antiretroviral therapy-experienced HIV-infected children: week 24 results of a randomized controlled trial-PACTG 377. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group 377 Study Team. AIDS Res. Human Retroviruses (2000) 16(12):1113-1121.
64. WALMSLEY S, BERNSTEIN B, KING M et al.: Lopinavir-ritonavir versus nelfinavir for the initial treatment of HIV infection. N. Engl. J. Med. (2002) 346(26):2039-2046.
65. SCHERPBIER HJ, BEKKER V, VAN LETH F et al.: Long-term experience with combination antiretroviral therapy that contains nelfinavir for up to 7 years in a pediatric cohort. Pediatrics (2006) 117(3):e528-e536.
66. DE LUCA M, MICCINESI G, CHIAPPINI E et al.: Different kinetics of immunologic recovery using nelfinavir or lopinavir/ritonavir-based regimens in children with perinatal HIV-1 infection. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol. (2005) 18(4):729-735.
67. WELLS CJ, SHARLAND M, SMITH CJ et al.: Triple nucleoside analogue therapy with zidovudine (AZT), lamivudine (3TC), and abacavir (ABC) in the paediatric HIV London South Network (PHILS-NET) cohort. Presented at the XIV International AIDS Conference. Barcelona, Spain (7-12 July 2002).
68. SAAVEDRA J, MCCOIG C, MALLORY M et al.: Clinical experience with triple nucleoside (NRTI) combination ZDV/3TC/abacavir (ABC) as initial therapy in HIV-infected children. Presented at the 41st Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. Chicago, IL, USA (16-19 December, 2001).
69. KLINE MW, VAN DYKE RB, LINDSEY JC et al.: Combination therapy with stavudine (d4T) plus didanosine (ddI) in children with human immunodeficiency virus infection. The Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group 327 Team. Pediatrics (1999) 103(5):e62.
70. ENGLUND JA, BAKER CJ, RASKINO C et al.: Zidovudine, didanosine, or both as the initial treatment for symptomatic HIV-infected children. AIDS Clinical Trials Group (ACTG) Study 152 Team. N. Engl. J. Med. (1997) 336(24):1704-1712.
71. STARR SE, FLETCHER CV, SPECTOR SA et al.: Efavirenz liquid formulation in human immunodeficiency virus-infected children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. (2002) 21(7):659-663.
72. DURANT J, CLEVENBERGH P, HALFON P et al.: Drug-resistance genotyping in HIV-1 therapy: the VIRADAPT randomised controlled trial. Lancet (1999) 353(9171):2195-2199.
73. BAXTER JD, MAYERS DL, WENTWORTH DN et al.: A randomized study of antiretroviral management based on plasma genotypic antiretroviral resistance testing in patients failing therapy. CPCRA 046 Study Team for the Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. AIDS (2000) 14(9):F83-F93.