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The populations selected were defined as having 'African, Asian and European ancestry' and included the Yoruba in Nigeria, unrelated Japanese in Tokyo, Han Chinese in Beijing, and thirty samples from Utah.
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For high-risk women (women with two or more first-degree relatives with breast cancer), the prevalence of BRCA mutations is about 8.7 per cent and above. In the general population, BRCA mutations are thought to be present anywhere from 1 in 300 to 1 in 500 women. See Heidi D. Nelson, Laurie Hoyt Huffman, Rongwei Fu and Emily L. Harris, 'Genetic risk assessment and BRCA mutation testing for breast and ovarian cancer susceptibility: systematic evidence review for the US Preventive Services Task Force', Annals of Internal Medicine, vol. 143, no. 5, September 2005, 362-79.
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51
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33845266865
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Because BRCA mutations are rare and explain only 5-10 per cent of breast cancer cases, researchers are showing increased interest in common polymorphisms that increase risk for breast cancer, including polymorphisms that are more prevalent among 'racial' groups.
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March (8)
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OtisW. Brawley, 'Cancer and health disparities', Cancer and Metastasis Reviews, vol. 22, no. 1, March 2003, 7-9 (8).
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(2003)
Cancer and Metastasis Reviews
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Brawley, O.1
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73
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0030801747
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Socioeconomic status and health in Blacks and Whites: The problem of residual confounding and the resiliency of race
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October (622) (emphasis in the original)
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Jay S. Kaufman, Richard S. Cooper and Daniel L. McGee, 'Socioeconomic status and health in Blacks and Whites: the problem of residual confounding and the resiliency of race', Epidemiology, vol. 8, no. 6, October 1997, 621-8 (622) (emphasis in the original).
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(1997)
Epidemiology
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, Issue.6
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Kaufman, J.S.1
Cooper, R.S.2
McGee, D.L.3
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76
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0037012341
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Disaggregating the effects of race and poverty on breast cancer outcomes
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April (471)
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Otis W. Brawley, 'Disaggregating the effects of race and poverty on breast cancer outcomes', Journal of the National Cancer Institute, vol. 94, no. 7, April 2002, 471-3 (471).
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(2002)
Journal of the National Cancer Institute
, vol.94
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, pp. 471-473
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Brawley, O.W.1
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77
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0024472958
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Exposure, susceptibility, and breast cancer risk: A hypothesis regarding exogenous carcinogens, breast tissue development, and social gradients, including black/white differences, in breast cancer incidence
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October (207)
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Nancy Krieger, 'Exposure, susceptibility, and breast cancer risk: a hypothesis regarding exogenous carcinogens, breast tissue development, and social gradients, including black/white differences, in breast cancer incidence', Breast Cancer Research and Treatment, vol. 13, no. 3, October 1989, 205-23 (207).
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(1989)
Breast Cancer Research and Treatment
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Krieger, N.1
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78
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55849142635
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See, Report P20-555 (Washington, D.C.: US Census Bureau), available on the US Census Bureau website at (viewed 15 September 2006)
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Since the publication of Krieger's article, fertility rates among African-American women have fallen and are near those of Whites. See Jane Dawler Dye, Fertility of American Women: June 2004, Report P20-555 (Washington, D.C.: US Census Bureau 2005), available on the US Census Bureau website at www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/p20-555.pdf (viewed 15 September 2006).
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(2005)
Fertility of American Women: June 2004
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Dye, J.D.1
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79
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0004994579
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See, Greenpeace Research Laboratories Technical Report (Amsterdam: Greenpeace International), available online at (viewed 1 September 2006)
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The chemicals in question are ubiquitous in the environment and, in the bodies of wildlife and humans, do not break down easily and tend to 'bioaccumulate', that is, the amount of synthetic chemical body burden is much higher at the top of the food chain than at the bottom. This explains why concentrations are high in fish and particularly high in humans who depend on fish for food. Synthetic chemicals that are classified as 'persistent' (and thus likely to bioaccumulate) have been termed 'POPs', or 'persistent organic pollutants'. The UN has listed twelve POPs of greatest concern to scientists and environmental health activists. See Michelle Allsopp, Ruth Stringer and Paul Johnston, Unseen Poisons: Levels of Organochlorine Chemicals inHuman Tissues, Greenpeace Research Laboratories Technical Report (Amsterdam: Greenpeace International 1998), available online at http://archive.greenpeace.org/toxics/ reports/unseenpo.pdf (viewed 1 September 2006).
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(1998)
Unseen Poisons: Levels of Organochlorine Chemicals InHuman Tissues
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Allsopp, M.1
Stringer, R.2
Johnston, P.3
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80
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0038139437
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And, as notes in her recent book (Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing)
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And, as Sandra Steingraber notes in her recent book, Having Faith: An Ecologist's Journey to Motherhood (Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing 2001), although breast-fed infants are not included in the typical 'chart' of the food chain, it is important to note that they occupy its highest slot since human milk is a repository for human food intake. Many synthetic chemicals bioaccumulate in human breast milk making it one of the most contaminated foods on the planet.
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(2001)
Having Faith: An Ecologist's Journey to Motherhood
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Steingraber, S.1
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83
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0004052836
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Unburdening ourselves
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Fall, available at the Silent Spring Institute website at (viewed 1 September 2006)
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Richard Jackson, director of the National Center for Environmental Health at the Centers for Disease Control has claimed: 'If you compared the legally allowable levels of toxic chemicals in cow's milk with levels of toxic chemicals in human milk, you would conclude that half the human milk in the United States would be unfit for sale under FDA guidelines.' Richard Jackson, 'Unburdening ourselves', Silent Spring Review, Fall 2000, 6-7, available at the Silent Spring Institute website at http://library.silentspring.org/publications/pdfs/ ssi_revfall00.pdf (viewed 1 September 2006).
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Silent Spring Review
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Jackson, R.1
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84
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Blood levels of organochlorine residues and risk of breast cancer
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April
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Mary S. Wolff, Paolo G. Toniolo, Eric W. Lee, Marilyn Rivera and Neil Dubin, 'Blood levels of organochlorine residues and risk of breast cancer', Journal of the National Cancer Institute, vol. 85, no. 8, April 1993, 648-52;
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(1993)
Journal of the National Cancer Institute
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, pp. 648-652
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Wolff, M.S.1
Toniolo, P.G.2
Lee, E.W.3
Rivera, M.4
Dubin, N.5
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85
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0030998946
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Could the rising levels of estrogen receptor in breast cancer be due to estrogenic pollutants?
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June
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Éric Dewailly, Pierre Ayotte and Sylvie Dodin, 'Could the rising levels of estrogen receptor in breast cancer be due to estrogenic pollutants?', Journal of the National Cancer Institute, vol. 89, no. 12, June 1997, 888-9;
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(1997)
Journal of the National Cancer Institute
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, pp. 888-889
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Dewailly, É.1
Ayotte, P.2
Dodin, S.3
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86
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High organochlorine body burden in women with estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer
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February
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Éric Dewailly, Sylvie Dodin, René Verreault, Pierre Ayotte, Louise Sauvé, Jacques Morin and Jacques Brisson, 'High organochlorine body burden in women with estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer', Journal of the National Cancer Institute, vol. 86, no. 3, February 1994, 232-4.
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(1994)
Journal of the National Cancer Institute
, vol.86
, Issue.3
, pp. 232-234
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Dewailly, É.1
Dodin, S.2
Verreault, R.3
Ayotte, P.4
Sauvé, L.5
Morin, J.6
Brisson, J.7
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87
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0030831628
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Plasma organochlorine levels and the risk of breast cancer
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October
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David J. Hunter, Susan E. Hankinson, Francine Laden, Graham A. Colditz, JoAnn E. Manson, Walter C. Willett, Frank Speizer and Mary S. Wolff, 'Plasma organochlorine levels and the risk of breast cancer', New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 337, no. 18, October 1997, 1253-8;
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(1997)
New England Journal of Medicine
, vol.337
, Issue.18
, pp. 1253-1258
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Hunter, D.J.1
Hankinson, S.E.2
Laden, F.3
Colditz, G.A.4
Manson, J.E.5
Willett, W.C.6
Speizer, F.7
Wolff, M.S.8
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88
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0033739171
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Breast cancer risk in relation to adipose concentrations of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in Long Island, New York
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November
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Steven D. Stellman, Mirjana V. Djordjevic, Julie A. Britton, Joshua E. Muscat, Marc L. Citron, Margaret Kemeny, Erna Busch and Lin Gong, 'Breast cancer risk in relation to adipose concentrations of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in Long Island, New York', Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention, vol. 9, no. 11, November 2000, 1241-9.
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Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention
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, pp. 1241-1249
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Stellman, S.D.1
Djordjevic, M.V.2
Britton, J.A.3
Muscat, J.E.4
Citron, M.L.5
Kemeny, M.6
Busch, E.7
Gong, L.8
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89
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Environmental risk factors for breast cancer among African-American women
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no. S1 (January)
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Mary S. Wolff, Julie A. Britton and Valerie P. Wilson, 'Environmental risk factors for breast cancer among African-American women', Cancer, vol. 97, no. S1 (Supplement), January 2003, 289-310.
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Cancer
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Wolff, M.S.1
Britton, J.A.2
Wilson, V.P.3
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90
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Racial stratification of organochlorine insecticide residue in human adipose tissue
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19 September
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The racial stratification of chemical exposures is well documented. In one 1977 study, levels of DDT were twice that of white subjects and researchers were twice as likely to find traces of lindane in black tissue samples. F. W. Kutz, A. R. Yobs and S. C. Strassman, 'Racial stratification of organochlorine insecticide residue in human adipose tissue', Journal of Occupational Medicine, vol. 9, 19 September 1977, 619-22.
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Journal of Occupational Medicine
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Yobs, A.R.2
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91
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Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene, polychlorinated biphenyls, and breast cancer among African-American and white women in North Carolina
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November
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Robert Millikan, Emily DeVoto, Eric J. Duell, Chiu-Kit Tse, David A. Savitz, James Beach, Sharon Edmiston, Susan Jackson and Beth Newman, 'Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene, polychlorinated biphenyls, and breast cancer among African-American and white women in North Carolina', Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention, vol. 9, no. 11, November 2000, 1233-40.
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Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention
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Millikan, R.1
Devoto, E.2
Duell, E.J.3
Tse, C.-K.4
Savitz, D.A.5
Beach, J.6
Edmiston, S.7
Jackson, S.8
Newman, B.9
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93
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Breast cancer incidence among atomic bomb survivors, Hiroshima and Nagasaki 1950-69
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September
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H. McGregor, C. E. Land, K. Choi, S. Tokuoka, P. I. Liu, T. Wakabayashi and G. W. Beebe, 'Breast cancer incidence among atomic bomb survivors, Hiroshima and Nagasaki 1950-69', Journal of the National Cancer Institute, vol. 59, no. 3, September 1977, 799-811;
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Journal of the National Cancer Institute
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, pp. 799-811
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McGregor, H.1
Land, C.E.2
Choi, K.3
Tokuoka, S.4
Liu, P.I.5
Wakabayashi, T.6
Beebe, G.W.7
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94
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Differentiation of the mammary gland and susceptibility to carcinogenesis
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March
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Jose Russo, Lee K. Tay and Irma H. Russo, 'Differentiation of the mammary gland and susceptibility to carcinogenesis', Breast Cancer Research and Treatment, vol. 2, no. 1, March 1982, 5-73;
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(1982)
Breast Cancer Research and Treatment
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Russo, J.1
Tay, L.K.2
Russo, I.H.3
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99
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Breast cancer research among African-American women: Accurate racial categories?
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no. S1, January (338)
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Larry W. Figgs, 'Breast cancer research among African-American women: accurate racial categories?', Cancer, vol. 97, no. S1 (Supplement), January 2003, 335-41 (338).
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Cancer
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Figgs, L.W.1
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