Critical Care Issues in the Early Management of Severe Trauma

Surgical Clinics of North America

Volumn 86, Issue 6, 2006, Pages 1359-1387

  Garcia, Alberto ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSIDAD DEL VALLE   (Colombia)

^b Fundacion Valle del Lili   (Colombia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; BARBITURIC ACID DERIVATIVE; CORTICOSTEROID; MANNITOL; NORADRENALIN; OXYGEN; PENTOBARBITAL; SODIUM CHLORIDE;

ABDOMINAL PRESSURE; AIRWAY; AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION; ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; BLOOD CLOTTING DISORDER; BLOOD TRANSFUSION; BLOOD VOLUME; CARBON DIOXIDE TENSION; CARDIOPULMONARY BYPASS; CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; CLINICAL TRIAL; COLLOID; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CONSCIOUSNESS; CRANIECTOMY; CRYSTALLOID; DELAYED DIAGNOSIS; DIAGNOSTIC ERROR; DIAPHRAGM HERNIA; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DRUG INDICATION; EMERGENCY CARE; ENDOTRACHEAL TUBE; ERYTHROCYTE TRANSFUSION; EXTUBATION; HEART OUTPUT MEASUREMENT; HEART TAMPONADE; HEMODYNAMIC MONITORING; HEMORRHAGIC SHOCK; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; HYPERVENTILATION; HYPOTENSION; HYPOTHERMIA; HYPOVOLEMIC SHOCK; INJURY; INJURY SEVERITY; INTENSIVE CARE; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; INTESTINE NECROSIS; INTOXICATION; INTRACRANIAL HYPERTENSION; LUNG COMPLIANCE; NEUROLOGIC EXAMINATION; NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKING; OXYGEN TENSION; PATIENT MONITORING; PERFUSION; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION; PNEUMOTHORAX; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROPHYLAXIS; RESPIRATORY SYSTEM; RESUSCITATION; REVIEW; SEDATION; SEIZURE; SKIN CARE; SURGICAL DRAINAGE; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE; TERTIARY HEALTH CARE; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY; THROMBOCYTE TRANSFUSION; TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY;

AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION; BRAIN INJURIES; CRITICAL CARE; ERYTHROCYTE TRANSFUSION; HUMANS; HYPOTHERMIA; INTRACRANIAL PRESSURE; INTUBATION, INTRATRACHEAL; POSITIVE-PRESSURE RESPIRATION; RESPIRATION, ARTIFICIAL; SHOCK; SHOCK, HEMORRHAGIC; TIME FACTORS; WOUNDS AND INJURIES;

EID: 33751219557     PISSN: 00396109     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.suc.2006.07.004     Document Type: Review

References (198)

1. Krug EG, Dahlberg LL, Mercy JA, et al. World report on violence and health. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2002.
2. Peden M, Scurfield R, Sleet D, et al. World report on road traffic injury prevention. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2004.
3. Wayatt J., Beard D., Gray A., et al. The time of death after trauma. BMJ 310 (1995) 1502
4. Jatt A., Khan M.R., Zafar H., et al. Peer review audit of trauma deaths in a developing country. Asian J Surg 27 (2004) 54-58
5. Stewart R.M., Myers J.G., Dent D.L., et al. Seven hundred fifty-three consecutive deaths in a level I trauma center: the argument for injury prevent. J Trauma 54 (2003) 66-71
6. Durham R., Shapiro D., and Flint L. In-house trauma attendings: is there a difference?. Am J Surg 190 (2005) 960-966
7. Esposito T.J., Sandddal T.L., Reynolds S.A., et al. Effect of a voluntary trauma system on preventable death and inappropriate care in a rural state. J Trauma 54 (2003) 633-670
8. Maio M.R., Burney R.E., Gregor M.A., et al. A study of preventable trauma mortality in rural Michigan. J Trauma 41 (1996) 83-90
9. Duke G.J., Morley P.T., Cooper D.J., et al. Management of severe trauma in intensive care units and surgical wards. Med J Aust 170 (1999) 416-419
10. Davies J.W., Hoyt D.B., McArdle M.S., et al. The significance of critical care errors in causing preventable death in trauma patients in a trauma system. J Trauma 31 (1991) 813-818
11. Quiroz F., Garcia A., and Perez M. Análisis de mortalidad prevenible en 150 casos de trauma carotídeo. Panam J Trauma 5 (1995) 116
12. Nunn JF. Applied respiratory physiology. 4th edition. Cambridge, Butterworth-Heinemann; 1993.
13. Chang D.W. AARC clinical practice guideline in-hospital transport of the mechanically ventilated patient-2002 revision & update. Respir Care 47 (2002) 721-723
14. Mort T. Emergency tracheal intubation: complications associated with repeated laryngoscopic attempts. Anest Analg 99 (2004) 607-613
15. Wong D.T., Lai K., Chung F.F., et al. Cannot Intubate-cannot ventilate and difficult intubation strategies: results of a Canadian National Survey. Anesth Analg 100 (2005) 1439-1446
16. Mort T. The incidence and risk factors for cardiac arrest during emergency tracheal intubation: a justification for incorporating the ASA guidelines in the remote location. J Clin Anesth 16 (2004) 508-516
17. Krinsley S.J., and Barone J.E. The drive to survive. Unplanned extubation in the ICU. Chest 128 (2005) 560-566
18. Epstein S.K., Nevins M.L., and Chung J. Effect of unplanned extubation on outcome of mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 163 (2001) 1755-1756
19. DeLassence A., Alberti C., Assoulay E., et al. Impact of unplanned extubation and reintubation after weaning on nosocomial pneumonia risk in the intensive care unit. A prospective multicenter study. Anesthesiology 97 (2002) 148-156
20. Kapadia F.N., Bajan K., and Raje K.V. Airway accidents in intubated intensive care unit patients: an epidemiological study. Crit Care Med 28 (2000) 659-664
21. Carrion M.I., Ayuso D., Marcos M., et al. Accidental removal of endotracheal and nasogastric tubes and intravascular catheters. Crit Care Med 28 (2000) 63-66
22. Needham DM, Thompson DA, Holzmueller CG, et al. A system factors analysis of airway events from the Intensive Care Unit Safety Reporting System (ICUSRS). Crit Care Med 204;32:2227-33.
23. Mort T. Unplanned tracheal extubation outside the operating room: a quality improvement audit of hemodynamic and tracheal airway complications associated with emergency tracheal reintubation. Anesth Analg 86 (1998) 1171-1176
24. Pesiri A.J. Two-year study of the prevention of unintentional extubation. Crit Care Nurs Q 17 (1994) 35-39
25. Arney K.L., Judson M.A., and Sahn S.A. Airway obstruction arising from blood clot three reports and a review of the literature. Chest 115 (1999) 293-300
26. Collins K.A., and Presnell S.E. Asphyxia by tracheobroncial trombus. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 26 (2005) 327-329
27. Shalmovitz G.Z., and Halpern P. Delated obstruction of endotracheal tubes by aspirated foreign bodies: report of two cases. Ann Emerg Med 43 (2004) 630-633
28. Sprung J., Bourke D.L., Harrison G., et al. Endotracheal tube and tracheobronchial obstruction as causes of hypoventilation with high inspiratory pressures. Chest 105 (1994) 550-552
29. DeLassence A., Timsit J.F., Taflet M., et al. Pneumothorax in the intensive care unit incidence, risk factors, and outcome. Anesthesiology 104 (2006) 5-13
30. Chen K.Y., Jern J.S., Liao W.Y., et al. Pneumothorax in the ICU. Patient outcomes and prognostic factors. Chest 122 (2002) 678-683
31. Burshell S.A., Takiguchi S.A., Myers S.A., et al. Unilateral lung hyperinflation and auto-positive end-expiratory pressure due to a ruptured right hemidiaphragm. Crit Care Med 24 (1996) 1418-21
32. Guth A.A., Pachler H.L., and Kim V. Pitfalls in the diagnosis of blunt diaphragmatic injury. Am J Surg 170 (1995) 5-9
33. Voeller G.L., Reisser J.R., Fabian T.C., et al. Blunt diaphragmatic injuries: a five- year experience. Am Surg 56 (1990) 28-31
34. Lee W.C., Chen R.J., Fang J.F., et al. Rupture of the diaphragm after blunt trauma. Eur J Surg 160 (1990) 479-483
35. Balogh Z., McKinley B., Cocanour C.S., et al. Secondary abdominal compartment syndrome is an elusive early complication of traumatic shock resuscitation. Am J Surg 184 (2002) 538-544
36. Balogh Z., McKinley B., Holcomb J.B., et al. Both primary and secondary abdominal compartment syndrome can be predicted early and are harbingers of multiple organ failure. J Trauma 54 (2003) 848-861
37. Ertel W., Oberholzer A., Platz A., et al. Incidence and clinical pattern of the abdominal compartment syndrome after "damage-control" laparotomy in 311 patients with severe abdominal and/or pelvic trauma. Crit Care Med 28 (2000) 1747-1753
38. McGee S., Abernethy III W.B., and Simel D.L. The rational clinical examination. Is this patient hypovolemic?. JAMA 281 (1999) 1022-1029
39. Celoria G., Steingrub J.S., Vickers-Lati M., et al. Clinical assessment of hemodynamic values in two surgical intensive care units. Effects on therapy. Arch Surg 125 (1990) 1036-1039
40. Shoemaker W.C., Appel P.L., and Kran H. Physiologic patterns in surviving and nonsurviving shock patients. Arch Surg 106 (1973) 630-636
41. Abou-Khalil B., Scalea T.M., and Trooskin S.Z. Hemodynamic responses to shock in young trauma patients: need for invasive monitoring. Crit Care Med 22 (1994) 633-639
42. Dutton R.P. Shock and trauma anesthesia. Anest Clin North Am 17 (1999) 83-95
43. Sauaia A., Moore F.A., Moore E.E., et al. Early predictors of postinjury multiple organ failure. Arch Surg 129 (1994) 1036-1039
44. Moore F.A., Haenel J.B., Moore E.E., et al. Incommensurate oxygen consumption in response to maximal oxygen availability predicts postinjury multiple organ failure. J Trauma 33 (1992) 58-65
45. Shoemaker W.C., Appel P.L., and Kran H. Hemodynamic and oxygen transport responses insurvivors and nonsurvivors of high risk surgery. Crit Care Med 21 (1993) 977-990
46. Kirton O., Windsor J., Wedderburn R., et al. Failure of splanchnic resuscitation in the acutely injured trauma patient correlates with multiple organ system failure and length of stay in the ICU. Chest 113 (1998) 1064-1069
47. Garcia A. Resuscitación en trauma y cirugía mayor. Rev Col Cirug 16 (2001) 26-38
48. Losada H.F., and Garcia A. Riesgo de disfunción orgánica múltiple, después de toracotomía por trauma. Rev Med Sur (Chile) 23 (2001) 46-53
49. Griffel M.I., and Kauffman B. Pharmacology of colloids and crystalloids. Crit Care Clin 8 (1992) 235-253
50. Grocott M.P.W., Mythen M.C., and Gan T.J. perioperative fluid management and clinical outcomes in adults. Anesth Analg 100 (2005) 1093-1106
51. Roberts I, Alderson P, Bunn F, et al. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill patients. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004;(1):CD000567.
52. Investigators TSAFES. A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit. N Engl J Med 350 (2004) 2247-2256
53. Mora R.R.A., Alí A., Borráez O., et al. Reunión de consenso: terapia de fluídos en pacientes críticamente enfermos. Acta Col Cuidado Intensivo 8 (2005) 52
54. Shires G.T., Cohn D., and Carrico C.T. Fluid therapy in hemorrhagic shock. Arch Surg 88 (1964) 688-692
55. Riddez L., Hahn R.G., Brismar B., et al. Central and regional hemodynamics during acute hypovolemia and volume substitution in volunteers. Crit Care Med 25 (1997) 635-640
56. Heyland D.K., Cook D.J., King D., et al. Maximizing oxygen delivery in critically ill patients: a methodologic appraisal of the evidence. Crit Care Med 24 (1996) 617-624
57. Ivanov R., Allen J., and Calvin J.E. The incidence of major morbidity in critically ill patients managed with pulmonary artery catheters: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 28 (2000) 615-619
58. Kern J.W., and Shoemaker W.C. Meta-analysis of hemodynamic optimization in high-risk patients. Crit Care Med 30 (2002) 1686-1692
59. Huckabee W.E. Relationships of pyruvate and lactate during anaerobic metabolism: I. Effect of infusion of pyruvate or glucose and of hyperventilation. J Clin Invest 37 (1958) 244-254
60. Huckabee W.E. Relationships of pyruvate and lactate during anaerobic metabolism: II. Exercise and formation of O-debt. J Clin Invest 37 (1958) 255-263
61. Broder G., and Weil M.H. Excess lactate-an index of reversibility of shock in human patients. Science 143 (1964) 1457-1459
62. Crowl A.C., Young J.S., Kahler D.M., et al. Occult hypoperfusion is associated with increased morbidity in patients undergoing early femur fracture fixation. J Trauma 48 (2000) 260-267
63. Abramson D., Scalea T.M., Hitchcock R., et al. Lactate clearance and survival following injury. J Trauma 35 (1993) 548-549
64. Husain F.A., Martin M.J., Mullenix P.S., et al. Serum lactate and base deficit as predictors of mortality and morbidity. Am J Surg 185 (2003) 485-491
65. Kaplan L.J., and Kellum J.A. Initial pH, base deficit, lactate, anion gap, strong ion difference, and strong ion gap predict outcome from major vascular injury. Crit Care Med 32 (2004) 1120-1124
66. FitzSullivan E., Salim A., Demetriades D., et al. Serum bicarbonate may replace the arterial base deficit in the trauma intensive care unit. Am J Surg 190 (2005) 941-946
67. Dunham C.M., Siegel J.H., Weireter L., et al. Oxygen debt and metabolic acidemia as quantitative predictors of mortality and the severity of the ischemic insult in hemorrhagic shock. Crit Care Med 19 (1991) 231-243
68. Davis J.W., Shackford S.R., Holbrook T.L., et al. Base deficit as a sensitive indicator of compensated shock and tissue oxygen utilization. Surg Gynecol Obstet 173 (1991) 473-476
69. Rutherford EJ, Morris JA, Reed GW, et al. Base deficit stratifies mortality and determines therapy. J Trauma 1992;33:417-23.
70. Porter J., and Ivatury R.R. In search of the optimal end points of resuscitation in trauma patients: a review. J Trauma 88 (1998) 908-914
71. 2 as early warning of tissue hypoxia and hemodynamic shock in critically ill emergency patients. Crit Care Med 28 (2000) 2248-2253
72. Hameed S.M., and Cohn S.M. Gastric tonometry. The role of mucosal pH measurement in the management of trauma. Chest 123 (2003) 475s-481s
73. Marik P.E., and Bankov A. Sublingual capnometry versus traditional markers of tissue oxygenation in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 31 (2003) 818-822
74. Knudson M.M., Bermudez K.M., Doyle C.A., et al. Use of tissue oxygen tension measurements during resuscitation from hemorrhagic shock. J Trauma 42 (1997) 608-614
75. McKinley B.A., and Butler B.D. Comparison of skeletal muscle PO2, PCO2, and pH with gastric tonometric P(CO2) and pH in hemorrhagic shock. Crit Care Med 27 (1999) 1869-1877
76. Venkatesh B., Meacher R., Muller M.J., et al. Monitoring tissue oxygenation during resuscitation of major burns. J Trauma 50 (2001) 485-494
77. Benaron D.A., Parachikov I.H., Friedland S., et al. Continuous, noninvasive, and localized microvascular tissue oximetry using visible light spectroscopy. Anesthesiology 100 (2004) 1469-1475
78. Crookers B.A., Cohn S.M., Bloch S., et al. Can near-infrared spectroscopy identify the severity of shock in trauma patients?. J Trauma 58 (2005) 806-816
79. Shapiro M.J., Gettinger A., Corwin H.L., et al. Anemia and blood transfusion in trauma patients admitted to the intensive care unit. J Trauma 55 (2003) 269-274
80. van de Watering L.M., Hermans J., Houbiers J.G.A., et al. Beneficial effects of leukocyte depletion of transfused blood on postoperative complications in patients undergoing cardiac surgery a randomized clinical trial. Circulation 97 (1998) 562-568
81. van Hilten JA, van de Watering LM, van Bockel JH, et al. Effects of transfusion with red cells filtered to remove leucocytes: randomised controlled trial in patients undergoing major surgery. BMJ 2004;328:1281-4.
82. Claridge J, Sawyer RG, Schulman AW, et al. Blood transfusions correlate with infections in trauma patients in a dose-dependent manner. Am Surg 2002;68:556-72.
83. Vincent J.L., Baron J.F., Reinhart K., et al. Anemia and blood transfusion in critically ill patients. JAMA 288 (2002) 1499-1507
84. Hebert P.C., Wells G., Blajchman M.A., et al. A multicenter, randomized, controlled clinical trial of transfusion requirements in critical care. N Eng J Med 340 (1999) 409-417
85. Hill SR, Carless PA, Henry DA, et al. Transfusion thresholds and other strategies for guiding allogeneic red blood cell transfusion. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002;(2):CD002042.
86. Gubler K.D., Gentilello L.H., Hassantash S.A., et al. The impact of hypothermia on dilutional coagulopathy. J Trauma 36 (1994) 847-851
87. Garcia A. Coagulopatía asociada al trauma. Rev Col Cirug 11 (1996) 17-23
88. DeLougery T. Coagulation defects in trauma patients: etiology, recognition, and therapy. Crit Care Clin 20 (2004) 13-24
89. Wolberg A.S., Meng S.H., Monroe III D.M., et al. A systematic evaluation of the effect of temperature on coagulation enzyme activity and platelet function. J Trauma 56 (2004) 1221-1228
90. Hardy J.-F., de Moerloose P., and Samama M. Massive transfusion and coagulopathy: pathophysiology and implications for clinical management. Can J Anesth 51 (2004) 293-310
91. Spahn D.R., and Rossaint R. Coagulopathy and blood component transfusion in trauma. BJA 95 (2005) 130-139
92. McKenna R. Postoperative medical complications. Abnormal coagulation in the postoperative priod contributing to excessive bleeding. Med Clin North Am 85 (2001) 1277-1310
93. Gentilello L., Jurkovich G., Stark M., et al. Is hypothermia in the victim of major trauma protective or harmful?: A randomized, prospective study. Ann Surg 226 (1997) 439-449
94. Sessler D.I. Complications and treatment of mild hypothermia. Anesthesiology 95 (2001) 531-543
95. Kober A., Scheck T., Fulesdi B., et al. Effectiveness of resistive heating compared with passive warming in treating hypothermia associated with minor trauma: a randomized trial. Mayo Clin Proc 76 (2001) 369-375
96. Petrone P., Kuncir E.J., and Asensio J. Surgical management and strategies in the treatment of hypothermia and cold injury. Emerg Med Clin North Am 21 (2003) 1165-1178
97. Negishi C., Hasegawa K., Mukai S., et al. Resistive-heating and forced-air warming are comparably effective. Anest Analg 96 (2003) 1683-1687
98. Counts R.B., Haisch C., Simon T.L., et al. Hemostasis in massively transfused trauma patients. Ann Surg 190 (1979) 91-99
99. Reed R.L., Ciavarella D., Heimbach D.M., et al. Prophylactic platelet administration during massive transfusion. A prospective, randomized, double-blind clinical study. Ann Surg 203 (1986) 48-58
100. Yugueros P., Sarmiento J., and Ferrada R. Síndrome postpericardiotomía. Rev Col Cirug 8 (1993) 90-100
101. Campbell N.C., Thompson S.R., Muckard D.J.J., et al. Review of 1198 cases of penetrating cardiac trauma. Br J Surg 84 (1997) 1737-1740
102. Orliaguet G., Ferjani M., and Riuo B. The heart in blunt trauma. Anesthesiology 95 (2001) 544-548
103. Tso P., Rodriguez A., Cooper C., et al. Sonography in blunt abdominal trauma: a preliminary progress report. J Trauma 33 (1992) 39-44
104. Rozicki G.S., Ocshner M.G., Jaffin J.H., et al. Prospective evaluation of surgeons' use of ultrasound in the evaluation of trauma patients. J Trauma 34 (1993) 516-527
105. McKenney K.L., McKenney M.G., Cohn S.M., et al. Hemoperitoneum score helps determine need for therapeutic laparotomy. J Trauma 50 (2001) 650-656
106. Sclafani S.S.J.A., Shaftan G.W., Scalea T.M., et al. Nonoperative salvage of computed tomography-diagnosed splenic injuries: utilization of angiography for triage and embolization for hemostasis. J Trauma 39 (1995) 818-827
107. Velmahos G., Demetriades D., Chahwan S., et al. Angiographic embolization for arrest of bleeding after penetrating trauma to the abdomen. Am J Surg 178 (1999) 367-373
108. Velmahos G., Chahwan S., Falabella A., et al. Angiographic embolization for intraperitoneal and retroperitoneal injuries. World J Surg 24 (2000) 539-545
109. Velmahos G.C., Toutoouzas K., Vassiliu P., et al. A prospective study on the safety and efficacy of angiographic embolization for pelvic and visceral injuries. J Trauma 52 (2002) 3003-3008
110. Kushimoto S., Arai M., Aiboshi J., et al. The role of interventional radiology in patients requiring damage control laparotomy. J Trauma 54 (2003) 171-176
111. Mohr A., Lavery R.F., Barone A., et al. Angiographic embolization for liver injuries: low mortality, high morbidity. J Trauma 55 (2005) 1077-1082
112. Yeh M.W., Hom J.K., Schecter W.P., et al. Endovascular repair of an actively hemorrhaging gunshot injury to the abdominal aorta. J Vasc Surg 42 (2005) 1007-1009
113. Barba C.A. The intensive care unit as an operating room. Surg Clin North Am 80 (2000) 957-973
114. Mayberry J.C. Bedside open abdominal surgery. Utility and wound management. Crit Care Clin 16 (2000) 151-172
115. Rozicki G.S., Feliciano D.V., Ocshner M.G., et al. The role of ultrasound in patients with possible penetrating cardiac wounds: a prospective multicenter study. J Trauma 46 (1999) 543-552
116. Bar-Nathan M., Richardson D., and Garcia A. Indicaciones de toracotomia en trauma. In: Rodriguez A., and Ferrada R. (Eds). Texto de trauma. Sociedad Panamericana de Trauma (1997), Feriva, Cali
117. Ferrada A., and Rodriguez A. Trauma cardiaco. Tratamiento quirurgico. Rev Col Cirug 16 (2001) 5-15
118. Lowell J.A., Schifferdecker C., Driscoll D.F., et al. Postoperative fluid overload: not a benign problem. Crit Care Med 18 (1990) 728-733
119. Venn R., Steela A., Richardson P., et al. Randomized controlled trial to investigate influence of the fluid challenge on duration of hospital stay and perioperative morbidity in patients with hip fractures. Br J Anaesth 88 (2002) 65-71
120. Balogh Z., McKinley B., Cocanour C.S., et al. Supranormal trauma resuscitation causes more cases of intraabdominal compartment. Arch Surg 138 (2003) 637-643
121. Michard F., and Teboul J.-F. Predicting fluid responsiveness in ICU patients. A critical analysis of the evidence. Chest 121 (2002) 2000-2008
122. Weiss Y.G., Oppenheim-Eden A., Gilon D., et al. Systolic pressure variation in hemodynamic monitoring after severe blast injury. J Clin Anesth 11 (1999) 132-135
123. Michard F., Boussat S., Chemla D., et al. Relation between respiratory changes in arterial pulse pressure and fluid responsiveness in septic patients with acute circulatory failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 162 (2000) 134-138
124. Bullock R., Chesnut R.M., Clifton G., et al. Guidelines for the management of severe head injury-revision. J Neurotrauma 17 (2000) 457-627
125. Chesnut R.M., Marshall L.F., Klauber M.R., et al. The role of secondary brain injury in determining outcome from severe head injury. J Trauma 34 (1994) 216-222
126. Jeremitsky E., Omert L., Dunham M., et al. Harbingers of poor outcome the day after severe brain injury: hypothermia, hypoxia, and hypoperfusion. J Trauma 55 (2003) 388-389
127. Huyhn T., Messer M., Sing R.F., et al. Positive end-expiratory pressure alters intracranial and cerebral perfusion pressure in severe traumatic brain injury. J Trauma 53 (2002) 488-492
128. Caricato A., Conti G., Della Corte F., et al. Effects of PEEP on the intracranial system of patients with head injury and subarachnoid hemorrhage: the role of respiratory system compliance. J Trauma 58 (2005) 571-576
129. Hsiang J.K., Chesnut R.M., Crisp C.B., et al. Early, routine paralysis for intracranial pressure control in severe head. Crit Care Med 22 (1994) 1471-1476
130. Chesnut R.M. Management of brain and spine injuries. Crit Care Clin 20 (2004) 25-55
131. Feinstein A.J., Patel M.B., Sanui M., et al. Resuscitation with pressors after traumatic brain injury. J Am Coll Surg 201 (2005) 536-545
132. Clifton G.L., Miller E.R., Choi S.C., et al. Lack of effect of induction of hypothermia after acute brain injury. N Eng J Med 344 (2001) 556-563
133. Alderson P., Gadkary C., and Signorini D.F. Therapeutic hypothermia for head injury. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4 (2004) CD001048
134. Ghajar R., Intracranial pressure monitoring techniques. New Horiz 1995;3:395-9.
135. Marshall L.F., Smith R.W., Rausher L.A., et al. Mannitol dose requirements in brain injured patients. J Neurosurg 48 (1978) 169-172
136. Cruz J. The first decade of continuous monitoring of jugular bulb oxyhemoglobinsaturation: management strategies and clinical outcome. Crit Care Med 26 (1998) 344-351
137. Eisenberg H., Frankiwski R., Contant C., et al. The comprehensive central nervous system trauma centers. High-dose barbiturate control of elevated intracranial pressure in patients with severe head injury. J Neurosurg 69 (1988) 15-23
138. Gaab M.R., Rittierodt M., Lorenz M., et al. Traumatic brain swelling and operative decompression: a prospective investigation. Acta Neurochir 51 (1990) s326-s328
139. Bullock M.R., Chesnut R., Ghajar R., et al. Surgical management of traumatic brain lesions. Neurosurgery 58 (2006) s225-s246
140. Berger S., Schurer L., Hartl R., et al. Reduction of post-traumatic intracranial hypertension by hypertonic/hyperoncotic saline/dextran and hypertonic mannitol. Neurosurgery 37 (1995) 87-107
141. Khanna S., Davis D., Peterson B., et al. Use of hypertonic saline in the treatment of severe refractory posttraumatic intracranial hypertension in pediatric traumatic brain injury. Crit Care Med 28 (2000) 1144-1151
142. Peterson B., Khanna S., Fisher B., et al. Prolonged hypernatremia controls elevated intracranial pressure in head-injured pediatric patients. Crit Care Med 28 (2000) 1136-1143
143. Cooper J., Myles P., McDermott F., et al. Prehospital hypertonic saline resuscitation of patients with hypotension and severe traumatic brain injury. JAMA 291 (2004) 1350-1377
144. Roberts I., Yates D., Sandercock P., et al. Effect of Intravenous corticosteroids on death within 14 days in 10008 adults with clinically significant head injury (MRC CRASH trial). Lancet 364 (2004) 1321-1328
145. Edwards P., Arango M., Balica L., et al. Final results of MRC CRASH, a randomised placebo-controlled trial of intravenous corticosteroid in adults with head injury-outcomes at 6 months. Lancet 365 (2005) 1957-1959
146. Scalea T.M., Phillips T.F., Goldstein A.S., et al. Injuries missed at operation: nemesis of the trauma surgeon. J Trauma 28 (1988) 962-966
147. Enderson B.L., Reath D.B., Meadors J., et al. The tertiary trauma survey: a prospective study of missed injury. J Trauma 30 (1990) 666-669
148. Hirshberg A., Wall M.J., Mattox K.L., et al. Causes and patterns of missed injuries in trauma. Am J Surg 168 (1994) 299-303
149. Buduhan G., and McRitchie D.I. Missed injuries in patients with multiple trauma. J Trauma 49 (2000) 600-605
150. Vles W.J., Veen E.J., Roukema J.D., et al. Consequences of delayed diagnoses in trauma patients: a prospective study. J Am Coll Surg 197 (2003) 596-602
151. Brooks A., Holroyd B., and Riley B. Missed injury in major trauma patients. Injury 35 (2004) 407-410
152. Jimenez-Gomez L.M., Amunategui I., Sanchez J.M., et al. Missed injuries in patients with multiple trauma: analysis of a trauma registry. Cir Esp 78 (2005) 303-307
153. Sharma O.P., Scala-Barnett D.M., Oswanski M.F., et al. Clinical and autopsy analysis of delayed diagnosis and missed injuries in trauma patients. Am Surg 72 (2006) 174-179
154. Born C.T., Ross S.E., Iannacone W.M., et al. Delayed identification of skeletal injury in multisystem trauma: the "missed" fracture. J Trauma 29 (1989) 1643-1646
155. Garcia A., Lalsie R., Paredes J., et al. Mortalidad prevenible por trauma en Cali. Colombia, 1998. Acta Col Cuidado Intensivo 4 (2001) 106-107
156. Rizoli S.B., Boulanger B.R., McLellan B.A., et al. Injuries missed during initial assessment of blunt trauma patients. Accid Anal Prev 26 (1994) 681-686
157. Furnival R.A., Woodward G.A., and Schunk J.E. Delayed diagnosis of injury in pediatric trauma. Pediatrics 98 (1996) 56-62
158. Meijer J.M.R., Janssens M., and Hammacher E.R. Injuries missed in dealing with severely wounded accident victims in the emergency room. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 40 (1999) 1742-1745
159. Sharma B.R., Gupta M., Harish D., et al. Missed diagnoses in trauma patients vis-a-vis significance of autopsy. Injury 36 (2005) 976-983
160. Watts D.D., Fahkhry S., and the EAST Multi-institutional HVI Research Group. Incidence of hollow viscus injury in blunt trauma: an analysis from 275,557 trauma admissions from the EAST Multi-Institutional Trial. J Trauma 54 (2003) 289-294
161. Fakhry S.M., Brownstein M., Watts D.D., et al. Relatively short diagnostic delays (<8 hours) produce morbidity and mortality in blunt small bowel injury: an analysis of time to operative intervention in 198 patients from a multicenter experience. J Trauma 48 (2000) 408-14
162. Sirlin C.B., Brown M.A., Andrade-Barreto O., et al. Abdominal trauma: clinical value of negative screening US scans. Radiology 230 (2004) 661-668
163. Ball C.G., Kirkpatrick A.W., Laupland K.B., et al. Factors related to the failure of radiographic recognition of occult posttraumatic pneumothoraces. Am J Surg 189 (2005) 541-546
164. Ball C.G. Are occult pneumothoraces truly occult or simply missed?. J Trauma 60 (2006) 294-298
165. Grossman M.D., and Born C. Tertiary survey of the trauma patient in the intensive care unit. Surg Clin North Am 80 (2000) 805-824
166. Hoff W.S., Sicoutris C.P., Lee S.Y., et al. Formalized radiology rounds: the final component of the tertiary survey. J Trauma 56 (2004) 291-295
167. Bifl W.L., Harrington D.T., Cioffi W.C., et al. Implementation of a tertiary trauma survey decreases missed injuries. J Trauma 54 (2003) 38-44
168. Maxwell R.A., Campbell D.J., Fabian T.C., et al. Use of presumptive antibiotics following tube thoracostomy for traumatic hemopneumothorax in the prevention of empyema and pneumonia-a multi-center trial. J Trauma 57 (2004) 742-749
169. Grover F.L., Richardson J.D., Fewel J.G., et al. Prophylactic antibiotics in the treatment of penetrating chest wounds. A prospective double-blind study. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 74 (1977) 528-536
170. LeBlanc K.A., and Tucker W.Y. Prophylactic antibiotics and closed tube thoracostomy. Surg Gynecol Obstet 160 (1985) 259-263
171. Nichols R.L., Smith J.W., Muzic A.C., et al. Preventive antibiotic usage in traumatic thoracic injuries requiring closed tube thoracostomy. Chest 106 (1994) 1493-1498
172. Gonzalez R.P., and Holevar M.R. Role of prophylactic antibiotics for tube thoracostomy in chest trauma. Am Surg 64 (1998) 617-620
173. Luchette F.A., Barrie P.S., Oswanski M.F., et al. Practice management guidelines for prophylactic antibiotic use in tube thoracostomy for traumatic hemopneumothorax: the EAST practice management guidelines work group. J Trauma 48 (2000) 753-757
174. Namias N., Harvill S., Ball S., et al. Cost and morbidity associate with antibiotic prophylaxis in the ICU. J Am Coll Surg 190 (2000) 503-504
175. Velmahos G., Toutzas K.G., Sarkisyan G., et al. Severe trauma is not an excuse for prolonged antibiotic prophylaxis. Arch Surg 137 (2002) 537-542
176. Hoth J.J., Franklin G.A., Stassen N.A., et al. Prophylactic antibiotics adversely affect nosocomial pneumonia i trauma patients. J Trauma 55 (2000) 549-554
177. Dellinger E.P., Wertz H.J., Lennard E.S., et al. Efficacy of short-course antibiotic prophylaxis after penetrating intestinal injury. Arch Surg 121 (1986) 23-30
178. Demetriades D., Lakhoo M., Pezikis A., et al. Short-course antibiotic prophylaxis in penetrating abdominal injuries: ceftriaxone versus cefoxitin. Injury 22 (1991) 20-24
179. Fabian T.C., Croce M.A., Payne L.W., et al. Duration of antibiotic therapy for penetrating abdominal trauma: a prospective trial. Surgery 112 (1992) 788-795
180. Sarmiento J.M., Aristizabal G., Rubiano J., et al. Prophylactic antibiotics in abdominal trauma. J Trauma 37 (1994) 803-806
181. Kirton O., O'Neill P.A., Ketsner M., et al. Perioperative antibiotic use in high-risk penetrating hollow viscus injury: a prospective randomized, double-blind, placebo-control trial of 24 hours versus 5 days. J Trauma 49 (2000) 822-832
182. Luchette F.A., Borzotta A.P., Croce M.A., et al. Practice management guidelines for prophylactic antibiotic use in penetrating abdominal trauma: the EAST practice management guidelines work group. J Trauma 48 (2000) 508-518
183. Eggimann P., and Pittet D. Infection control in the ICU. Chest 120 (2001) 2059-2093
184. Mollitt D.L. Infection control: avoiding the inavitable. Surg Clin North Am 82 (2002) 365-378
185. Coffin S.E., and Zaoutis K.E. Infection control, hospital epidemiology, and patient safety. Infect Dis Clin North Am 19 (2005) 647-665
186. Garcia A., Duque P., Urrutia L., et al. Factores de Riesgo de la UTI Asociada a la sonda vesical. Rev Col Cirug 20 (2005) 135-143
187. Moore E.E., and Jones T.N. Benefits of immediate jejunostomy feeding after major abdominal trauma-a prospective, randomized study. J Trauma 26 (1986) 874-881
188. Moore F.A., Moore E.E., Jones T.N., et al. TEN versus TPN following major abdominal trauma-reduced septic morbidity. J Trauma 29 (1989) 916-922
189. Kudsk K.A., Croce M.A., Fabian T.C., et al. enteral versus parenteral feeding effects on septic morbidity after blunt and penetrating abdominal trauma. Ann Surg 215 (1992) 503-511
190. Marik P.E., and Zaloga G.P. Early enteral nutrition in acutely ill patients: a systematic review. Crit Care Med 29 (2001) 2264-2270
191. Jacobs D.G., Jacobs D.O., Kudsk K., et al. Practice management guidelines for nutritional support of the trauma patient. J Trauma 57 (2004) 660-679
192. Geerts W.H., Code K.I., Jay R.M., et al. A prospective study of venous thromboembolism after major trauma. N Eng J Med 331 (1994) 1601-1606
193. Knudson M.M., Ikossi D.G., Khaw L., et al. Thromboembolism after trauma an analysis of 1602 episodes from the American College of Surgeons National Trauma Data Bank. Ann Surg 240 (2004) 490-498
194. Rogers F.B., Cipolle M.D., Velmahos G., et al. Practice management guidelines for the prevention of venous thromboembolism in trauma patients: The EAST Practice Management Guidelines Work Group. J Trauma 53 (2002) 142-164
195. Kirn J., Gearheart M.M., Zurick A., et al. Preliminary report on the safety of heparin for deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis after severe head injury. J Trauma 53 (2002) 38-433
196. Garcia A. Enfermedad tromboembólica en trauma. Panam J Trauma 10 (2003) 25-39
197. Alejandro K.V., Acosta J.A., and Rodriguez P.A. Bleeding manifestations after early use of low-molecular-weight heparins in blunt splenic injuries. Am Surg 69 (2003) 1006-1009
198. Geerts W.H., Pinneo G.F., Heith J.A., et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism: The Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 126 (2004) 338s-400s