The Use of Analgesics in Birds, Reptiles, and Small Exotic Mammals

Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine

Volumn 15, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 177-192

  Hawkins, Michelle G ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

analgesia; avian; NSAID; opioid; reptile; small mammal

Indexed keywords

ANIMALIA; AVES; MAMMALIA; REPTILIA;

EID: 33750622590     PISSN: 15575063     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1053/j.jepm.2006.06.004     Document Type: Article

References (130)

1. Definition of Pain: International Association for the Study of Pain web site. Available from: URL:http://www.iasp-pain.org/terms-p.html#Pain. Accessed November 21, 2005.
2. Rose J.D. The neurobehavioral nature of fishes and the question of awareness and pain. Rev Fish Sci 10 (2002) 1-38
3. Stevens C.W. Alternatives to the use of mammals for pain research. Life Sci 50 (1992) 901-912
4. Reiner A., Davis B.M., and Brecha N. The distribution of enkephalinlike immunoreactivity in the telencephalon of the adult and developing domestic chicken. J Comp Neuro 228 (1984) 245-262
5. Zhai S.-Y., and Atsumi S. Large dorsal horn neurons which receive inputs from numerous substance P-like immunoreactive axon terminals in the laminae I and II of the chicken spinal cord. Neurosci Res 28 (1997) 147-154
6. Brenner G.M., Klopp A.J., Deason L.L., et al. Analgesic potency of alpha adrenergic agents after systemic administration in amphibians. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 270 (1994) 540-545
7. Kanui T.I., and Hole K. Morphine and pethidine antinociception in the crocodile. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 15 (1992) 101-103
8. Kanui T.I., Hole K., and Miaron J.O. Nociception in crocodiles: capsaicin instillation, formalin and hot plate tests. Zool Sci 7 (1990) 537-540
9. Willenbring S., and Stevens C.W. Thermal, mechanical and chemical peripheral sensation in amphibians: opioid and adrenergic effects. Life Sci 58 (1996) 125-133
10. Lascelles B.D.X., Capner C.A., and Waterman-Pearson A.E. Survey of perioperative analgesic use in small animals. Vet Rec 137 (1995) 676
11. Lascelles B.D.X., Capner C.A., and Waterman-Pearson A.B. Current British veterinary attitudes to perioperative analgesia for cats and small mammals. Vet Rec 145 (2000) 601-604
12. Capner C.A., Lascelles B.D., and Waterman-Pearson A.E. Current British veterinary attitudes to perioperative analgesia for dogs. Vet Rec 145 (1999) 95-99
13. Read M.R. Evaluation of the use of anesthesia and analgesia in reptiles. J Am Vet Med Assoc 224 (2004) 547-552
14. Tuli J.S., Smith J.A., and Morton D.B. Stress measurements in mice after transportation. Lab Anim 29 (1995) 132-138
15. Clyde V., and Paul-Murphy J. Avian analgesia. In: Fowler M., and Miller R. (Eds). Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy 4 (1999), WB Saunders, Philadelphia, PA 309-314
16. Roughan J.V., and Flecknell P.A. Behavioural effects of laparotomy and analgesic effects of ketoprofen and carprofen in rats. Pain 90 (2001) 65-74
17. Roughan J.V., and Flecknell P.A. Effects of surgery and analgesic administration on spontaneous behaviour in singly housed rats. Res Vet 69 (2000) 283-288
18. Gentle M.J., and Hunter L.N. Physiological and behavioural responses associated with feather removal in Gallus gallus var domesticus. Res Vet Sci 50 (1991) 95-101
19. Harvey S., Phillips J., Rees A., et al. Stress and adrenal function. J Exp Zool 232 (1984) 633-645
20. Heatley J.J., Oliver J.W., Hosgood G., et al. Serum corticosterone concentrations in response to restraint, anesthesia, and skin testing in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis). J Avian Med Surg 14 (2000) 172-176
21. Ludders J.W., Langenberg J.A., Czekala N.M., et al. Fecal corticosterone reflects serum corticosterone in Florida sandhill cranes. J Wildl Dis 37 (2001) 646-652
22. Graham J.E., Kollias-Baker C., Craigmill A.L., et al. Pharmacokinetics of ketoprofen in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica). J Vet Pharmacol Ther 28 (2005) 399-402
23. Baert K., and De Backer P. Comparative pharmacokinetics of three non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in five bird species. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 134 (2003) 25-33
24. Paul-Murphy J., Hess J.C., and Fialkowski J.P. Pharmacokinetic properties of a single intramuscular dose of buprenorphine in African Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus erithacus). J Avian Med Surg 18 (2004) 224-228
25. Portnoy L.G., and Hustead D.R. Pharmacokinetics of butorphanol tartrate in rabbits. Am J Vet Res 53 (1992) 541-543
26. Hoppes S., Flammer K., Hoersch K., et al. Disposition and analgesic effects of fentanyl in white cockatoos (Cacatua alba). J Avian Med Surg 17 (2003) 124-130
27. Wilson G.H., Hernandez-Divers S.J., Budsberg S.C., et al. Pharmacokinetics and use of meloxican in psittacine birds. Proc Assoc Avian Vet Conf (2004) 7-9
28. Roughan J.V., and Flecknell P.A. Evaluation of a short duration behaviour-based post-operative pain scoring system in rats. Eur J Pain 7 (2003) 397-406
29. Roughan J.V., and Flecknell P.A. Behaviour-based assessment of the duration of laparotomy-induced abdominal pain and the analgesic effects of carprofen and buprenorphine in rats. Behav Pharmacol 15 (2004) 461-472
30. Hu O.Y., Ho S.T., Wang J.J., and Lee S.C. Paw pressure test in the rabbit: a new animal model for the study of pain. Acta Anaesthesiol Sin 34 (1996) 1-8
31. Hayashida M., Fukunaga A., Fukuda K., et al. A rabbit model for evaluation of surgical anesthesia and analgesia: characterization and validation with isoflurane anesthesia and fentanyl analgesia. J Anesth 18 (2004) 282-291
32. Bernacchi A.S., De Castro C.R., De Ferreyra E.C., et al. Carbon tetrachloride-induced liver injury in the rabbit. Br J Exp Path 64 (1983) 261-267
33. Hocking P.M., Gentle M.J., Bernard R., et al. Evaluation of a protocol for determining the effectiveness of pretreatment with local analgesics for reducing experimentally induced articular pain in domestic fowl. Res Vet Sci 63 (1997) 263-267
34. Hocking P.M., Bernard R., and Maxwell M.H. Assessment of pain during locomotion and the welfare of adult male turkeys with destructive cartilage loss of the hip joint. Brit Poult Sci 40 (1999) 30-34
35. Hocking P.M., Robertson G.W., and Gentle M.J. Effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on pain-related behaviour in a model of articular pain in the domestic fowl. Res Vet Sci 78 (2005) 69-75
36. Paul-Murphy J.R., Brunson D.B., and Miletic V. A technique for evaluating analgesia in conscious perching birds. Am J Vet Res 60 (1999) 1213-1217
37. Pezalla P.D. Morphine-induced analgesia and explosive motor behavior in an amphibian. Brain Res 273 (1983) 297-305
38. Pezalla P.D., and Stevens C.W. Behavioral effects of morphine, levorphanol, dextrorphan and naloxone in the frog Rana pipiens. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 21 (1984) 213-217
39. Cowan A., Doxey J.C., and Harry E.J. The animal pharmacology of buprenorphine, an oripavine analgesic agent. Br J Pharmacol 60 (1977) 547-554
40. Gentle M.J. Sodium urate arthritis: effects on the sensory properties of articular afferents in the chicken. Pain 70 (1997) 245-251
41. Woolf C.J., and Chong M.S. Preemptive analgesia-treating postoperative pain by preventing the establishment of central sensitization. Anesth Analg 77 (1993) 362-379
42. Katz J., Kavanagh B.P., Sandler A.N., et al. Preemptive analgesia. Clinical evidence of neuroplasticity contributing to postoperative pain. Anesthesiology 77 (1992) 439-446
43. Coderre T.J., Vaccarino A.L., and Melzack R. Central nervous system plasticity in the tonic pain response to subcutaneous formalin injection. Brain Res 535 (1990) 155-158
44. Coderre T.J., Katz J., Vaccarino A.L., et al. Contribution of central neuroplasticity to pathological pain: review of clinical and experimental evidence. Pain 52 (1993) 259-285
45. Richmond C.E., Bromley L.M., and Woolf C.J. Preoperative morphine pre-empts postoperative pain. Lancet 342 (1993) 73-75
46. Reichert J.A., Daughters R.S., Rivard R., et al. Peripheral and preemptive opioid antinociception in a mouse visceral pain model. Pain 89 (2001) 221-227
47. Flecknell P.A. Analgesia of small mammals. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 4 (2001) 47-56
48. Kero P., Thomasson B., and Soppi A.M. Spinal anaesthesia in the rabbit. Lab Anim 15 (1981) 347-348
49. Ludders J.W. Avian anesthesia for the general practitioner. Proc North Am Vet Conf 8 (1994) 791-793
50. Machin K.L., and Livingston A. Plasma bupivacaine levels in mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) following a single subcutaneous dose. Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet (2001) 159-163
51. Farley J.S., Hustead R.F., and Becker Jr. K.E. Diluting lidocaine and mepivacaine in balanced salt solution reduces the pain of intradermal injection. Reg Anesth 19 (1994) 48-51
52. Bennett R.A. A review of anesthesia and chemical restraint in reptiles. J Zoo Wildl Med 22 (1991) 282-303
53. Bennett R.A. Reptile anesthesia. Sem Av Exotic Pet Med 7 (1998) 30-40
54. Robertson S.A. Analgesia and analgesic techniques. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 4 (2001) 1-18
55. Glatz P.C., Murphy L.B., and Preston A.P. Analgesic therapy of beak-trimmed chickens. Aust Vet J 69 (1992) 18
56. Curley J., Castillo J., Hotz J., et al. Prolonged regional nerve blockade: injectable biodegradable bupivacaine/polyester microspheres. Anesthesiology 84 (1996) 1401-1410
57. Morimoto K., Nishimura R., Matsunaga S., et al. Epidural analgesia with a combination of bupivacaine and buprenorphine in rats. J Vet Med A Physiol Pathol Clin Med 48 (2001) 303-312
58. Gibbon K., Cyborski J., Guzinski M., et al. Evaluation of adverse effects of EMLA (lidocaine/prilocaine) cream for the placement of jugular catheters in healthy cats. J Vet Pharmacol Therap 26 (2001) 439-441
59. Flecknell P.A., Liles J.H., and Williamson H.A. The use of lignocaine-prilocaine local anaesthetic cream for pain-free venipuncture in laboratory animals. Lab Anim 24 (1990) 142-146
60. Flecknell P.A. Analgesia in small mammals. Sem Av Exotic Pet Med 7 (1998) 41-47
61. Plumb D.C. Veterinary Drug Handbook. (ed 2) (1995), Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA
62. Letcher J. Intracoelomic use of tricaine methanesulfonate for anesthesia of bullfrogs. Zoo Biol 11 (1992) 243-251
63. Letcher J., and Amsel S. Practitioner's guide to anesthesia in anurans. Comp Am Pract 19 (1989) 21-25
64. Joris J.L., Dubner R., and Hargreaves K.M. Opioid analgesia at peripheral sites: a target for opioids released during stress and inflammation?. Anesth Analg 66 (1987) 1277-1281
65. Dohoo S., Tasker R.A., and Donald A. Pharmacokinetics of parenteral and oral sustained-release morphine sulphate in dogs. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 17 (1994) 426-433
66. Pekow C. Buprenorphine Jell-O recipe for rodent analgesia. Synapse 25 (1992) 35-36
67. Mansour A., Khachaturian H., Lewis M.E., et al. Anatomy of CNS opioid receptors. Trends Neurosci 11 (1988) 308-314
68. Reiner A., Brauth S.E., Kitt C.A., et al. Distribution of mu, delta, and kappa opiate receptor types in the forebrain and midbrain of pigeons. J Comp Neurol 280 (1989) 359-382
69. Csillag A., Bourne R.C., and Stewart M.G. Distribution of mu, delta, and kappa opioid receptor binding sites in the brain of the one-day-old domestic chick (Gallus domesticus): an in vitro quantitative autoradiographic study. J Comp Neurol 302 (1990) 543-551
70. Concannon K.T., Dodam J.R., and Hellyer P.W. Influence of a mu- and kappa-opioid agonist on isoflurane minimal anesthetic concentration in chickens. Am J Vet Res 56 (1995) 806-811
71. Newman L.C., Sands S.S., Wallace D.R., and Stevens C.W. Characterization of mu, kappa, and delta opioid binding in amphibian whole brain tissue homogenates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 301 (2002) 364-370
72. Stevens C.W., Klopp A.J., and Facello J.A. Analgesic potency of mu and kappa opioids after systemic administration in amphibians. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 269 (1994) 1086-1093
73. Gorge G., Beyer J., and Urich K. Excretion and metabolism of phenol, 4-nitrophenol and 2-methylphenol by the frogs Rana temporaria and Xenopus laevis. Xenobiotica 17 (1987) 1293-1298
74. Schneider C. Effects of morphine-like drugs in chicks. Nature 191 (1961) 607-608
75. Hughes R.A. Strain-dependent morphine-induced analgesic and hyperalgesic effects on thermal nociception in domestic fowl (Gallus gallus). Behav Neurosci 104 (1990) 619-624
76. Hughes R.A. Codeine analgesia and morphine hyperalgesia effects on thermal nociception in domestic fowl. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 35 (1990) 567-570
77. Fan S.G., Shutt A.J., and Vogt M. The importance of 5-hydroxytryptamine turnover for the analgesic effect of morphine in the chicken. Neuroscience 6 (1981) 2223-2227
78. Gentle M.J., Hocking P.M., Bernard R., et al. Evaluation of intraarticular opioid analgesia for the relief of articular pain in the domestic fowl. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 63 (1999) 339-343
79. Mauk M.D., Olson R.D., LaHoste G.J., et al. Tonic immobility produces hyperalgesia and antagonizes morphine analgesia. Science 213 (1981) 353-354
80. Paul-Murphy J., Brunson D.B., and Miletic V. Analgesic effects of butorphanol and buprenorphine in conscious African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus erithacus and Psittacus erithacus timneh). Am J Vet Res 60 (1999) 1218-1221
81. Curro T.G. Evaluation of the isoflurane-sparing effects of butorphanol and flunixin in psittaciformes. Proc Assoc Avian Vet (1994) 17-19
82. Curro T.G., Brunson D.B., and Paul-Murphy J. Determination of the ED50 of isoflurane and evaluation of the isoflurane-sparing effect of butorphanol in cockatoos (Cacatua spp.). Vet Surg 23 (1994) 429-433
83. Mosley C.A., Dyson D., and Smith D.A. Minimum alveolar concentration of isoflurane in green iguanas and the effect of butorphanol on minimum alveolar concentration. J Am Vet Med Assoc 222 (2003) 1559-1564
84. Hedenqvist P., Orr H.E., Roughan J.V., Antunes L.M., and Flecknell P.A. Anaesthesia with ketamine/medetomidine in the rabbit: influence of route of administration and the effect of combination with butorphanol. Vet Anaesth Analg 29 (2002) 14-19
85. Walsh S.L., and Eissenberg T. The clinical pharmacology of buprenorphine: extrapolating from the laboratory to the clinic. Drug Alcohol Depend 70 Suppl 2 (2003) S13-S27
86. Pick C.G., Peter Y., Schreiber S., et al. Pharmacological characterization of buprenorphine, a mixed agonist-antagonist with kappa 3 analgesia. Brain 744 (1997) 41-46
87. Buprenorphine Hydrochloride. American Hospital Formulary Service Drug Information (2003), Board of Directors of the American Society of Hospital Pharmacists, Bethesda, MD pp 2061-2069
88. Leander J.D. Buprenorphine is a potent k-opioid receptor antagonist in pigeons and mice. Eur J Pharmacol 151 (1988) 457-461
89. Picker M.J. Kappa agonist and antagonist properties of mixed action opioids in a pigeon discrimination procedure. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 268 (1994) 1190-1198
90. Galici R., Brandt M.R., and France C.P. Characterization of the discriminative stimulus effects of buprenorphine in pigeons. Psychopharmacology 160 (2002) 132-139
91. Roughan J.V., and Flecknell P.A. Buprenorphine: a reappraisal of its antinociceptive effects and therapeutic use in alleviating post-operative pain in animals. Lab Anim 36 (2002) 322-343
92. Jablonski P., and Howden B.O. Oral buprenorphine and aspirin analgesia in rats undergoing liver transplantation. Lab Anim 36 (2002) 134-143
93. Flecknell P.A., and Liles J.H. Assessment of the analgesic action of opioid agonist-antagonists in the rabbit. J Assoc Vet Anaesth 17 (1990) 24-29
94. Swedberg M.D. The mouse grid-shock analgesia test: pharmacological characterization of latency to vocalization threshold as an index of antinociception. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 269 (1994) 1021-1028
95. Cook C.D., Barrett A.C., Roach E.L., et al. Sex-related differences in the antinociceptive effects of opioids: importance of rat genotype, nociceptive stimulus intensity, and efficacy at the mu opioid receptor. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 150 (2000) 430-442
96. Liles J.H., Flecknell P.A., Roughan J., et al. I: Influence of oral buprenorphine, oral naltrexone or morphine on the effects of laparotomy in the rat. Lab Anim 32 (1998) 149-161
97. Gades N.M., Danneman P.J., Wixson S.K., et al. The magnitude and duration of the analgesic effect of morphine, butorphanol, and buprenorphine in rats and mice. Contemp Top Lab Anim Sci 39 (2000) 8-13
98. Jacobson C. Adverse effects on growth rates in rats caused by buprenorphine administration. Lab Anim 34 (2000) 202-206
99. Nath R.P., Upton R.A., Everhart E.T., et al. Buprenorphine pharmacokinetics: relative bioavailability of sublingual tablet and liquid formulations. J Clin Pharmacol 39 (1999) 619-623
100. Machin K.L. Fish, amphibian, and reptile analgesia. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 4 (2001) 19-33
101. Flecknell P.A., Roughan J.V., and Stewart R. Use of oral buprenorphine ('buprenorphine jello') for postoperative analgesia in rats-a clinical trial. Lab Anim 33 (1999) 169-174
102. Schaeffer D.O. Miscellaneous species: analgesia and anesthesia. In: Smith A.C., and Swindle M.M. (Eds). Research Animal Anesthesia, Analgesia, and Surgery (1994), Scientists Centre for Animal Welfare, Greenbelt, MD 129-136
103. Jenkins J.R. Postoperative care. Sem Avian Exotic Pet Med 2 (1993) 97-102
104. Pugh G.C., and Drummond G.B. A dose-response study with nalbuphine hydrochloride for pain in patients after upper abdominal surgery. Br J Anaesth 59 (1987) 1356-1363
105. Woods M.P., Rayburn W.F., McIntosh D.G., et al. Nalbuphine after major gynecologic surgery. Comparison of patient-controlled analgesia and intramuscular injections. J Reprod Med 36 (1991) 647-650
106. Ho S.T., Wang J.J., Hu O.Y., et al. The antinociceptive effect of a long-acting nalbuphine preparation in rabbits. Acta Anaesthesiol Sin 41 (2003) 99-103
107. Chu K.S., Wang J.J., Hu O.Y., et al. The antinociceptive effect of nalbuphine and its long-acting esters in rats. Anesth Analg 97 (2003) 806-809
108. Wallace J.L. Selective COX-2 inhibitors: is the water becoming muddy?. Trends Pharmacol Sci 20 (1999) 4-6
109. Reuter B.K., Asfaha S., Buret A., et al. Exacerbation of inflammation-associated colonic injury in rat through inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2. J Clin Invest 98 (1996) 2076-2085
110. Mizuno H., Sakamoto C., Matsuda K., et al. Induction of cyclooxygenase 2 in gastric mucosal lesions and its inhibition by the specific antagonist delays healing in mice. Gastroenterology 112 (1997) 387-397
111. Schmassmann A., Peskar B.M., Stettler C., et al. Effects of inhibition of prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase-2 in chronic gastro-intestinal ulcer models in rats. Br J Pharmacol 123 (1998) 795-804
112. Harris R.C. Interactions between COX-2 and the renin-angiotensin system in the kidney. Acta Physiol Scand 177 (2003) 423-427
113. Harris R.C. Cyclooxygenase-2 and the kidney: functional and pathophysiological implications. J Hypertens 20 Suppl 6 (2002) S3-S9
114. Cheng H.F., and Harris R.C. Cyclooxygenases, the kidney, and hypertension. Hypertension 43 (2004) 1-6
115. Schmitt M., and Guentert T.W. Biopharmaceutical evaluation of ketoprofen following intravenous, oral, and rectal administration in dogs. J Pharm Sci 79 (1990) 614-616
116. Flecknell P.A., Orr H.E., Roughan J.V., and Stewart R. Comparison of the effects of oral or subcutaneous carprofen or ketoprofen in rats undergoing laparotomy. Vet Rec 144 (1990) 65-67
117. Machin K.L., Tellier L.A., Lair S., et al. Pharmacodynamics of flunixin and ketoprofen in mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos). J Zoo Wildl Med 32 (2001) 222-229
118. Machin K.L., and Livingston A. Assessment of the analgesic effects of ketoprofen in ducks anesthetized with isoflurane. Am J Vet Res 63 (2002) 821-826
119. Audeval-Gerard C., Nivet C., el Amrani A.I., et al. Pharmacokinetics of ketoprofen in rabbit after a single topical application. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 25 (2000) 227-230
120. Lees P., and Landoni M.F. Pharmacodynamics and enantioselective pharmacokinetics of racemic carprofen in the horse. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 25 (2002) 433-448
121. Cheng Z., Nolan A., Monteiro A., et al. Enantioselective pharmacokinetics and cyclo-oxygenase inhibition of carprofen and carprofen enantiomers in sheep. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 26 (2003) 391-394
122. McGeown D., Danbury T.C., Waterman-Pearson A.E., et al. Effect of carprofen on lameness in broiler chickens. Vet Rec 144 (1999) 668-671
123. Danbury T.C., Weeks C.A., Chambers J.P., et al. Self-selection of the analgesic drug carprofen by lame broiler chickens. Vet Rec 146 (2000) 307-311
124. Baert K., and De Backer P. Disposition of sodium salicylate, flunixin, and meloxicam after intravenous administration in ostriches (Struthio camelus). J Avian Med Surg 16 (2002) 123-128
125. Santos M., Kunkar V., Garcia-Iturralde P., et al. Meloxicam, a specific COX-2 inhibitor, does not enhance the isoflurane minimum alveolar concentration reduction produced by morphine in the rat. Anesth Analg 98 (2004) 359-363
126. Dahlhausen R., Aldred S., and Colaizzi E. Resolution of clinical proventricular dilatation disease by cyclooxygenase 2 inhibition. Proc Assoc Avian Vet (2002) 9-12
127. Malmberg A.B., and Yaksh T.L. Pharmacology of the spinal action of ketorolac, morphine, ST-91, U50488H, and L-PIA on the formalin test and an isobolographic analysis of the NSAID interaction. Anesthesiology 79 (1993) 270-281
128. Laird J.M., Herrero J.F., Garcia de la Rubia P., et al. Analgesic activity of the novel COX-2 preferring NSAID, meloxicam in mono-arthritic rats: central and peripheral components. Inflamm Res 46 (1997) 203-210
129. Liles J.H., and Flecknell P.A. The effects of surgical stimulus on the rat and the influence of analgesic treatment. Br Vet J 149 (1993) 515-525
130. Heard D.J. Principles and techniques of anesthesia and analgesia for exotic practice. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 23 (1993) 1301-1327