Atmospheric and water loss from early Venus

Planetary and Space Science

Volumn 54, Issue 13-14, 2006, Pages 1425-1444

  Kulikov, Yu N ^a   Lammer, H ^b   Lichtenegger, H I M ^b   Terada, N ^c,d   Ribas, I ^e   Kolb, C ^b   Langmayr, D ^b   Lundin, R ^g   Guinan, E F ^f   Barabash, S ^g   Biernat, H K ^b  

^a POLAR GEOPHYSICAL INSTITUTE   (Russian Federation)

^b Austrian Academy of Sciences ^*  (Austria)

^c NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY   (Japan)

^d JAPAN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AGENCY   (Japan)

^e INSTITUT DE CIÈNCIES DE L ESPAI CSIC IEEC   (Spain)

^f VILLANOVA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^g SWEDISH INSTITUTE OF SPACE PHYSICS   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Atmospheric evolution; Non thermal loss; Thermospheric heating; Venus

Indexed keywords

CHEMICAL REACTIONS; DEUTERIUM; IONIZATION; MASS SPECTROMETERS; PHOTODISSOCIATION; PLANETS; SPACE TELESCOPES;

ATMOSPHERIC EVOLUTION; IMPACT EROSION; NON-THERMAL LOSS; THERMOSPHERIC HEATING; VENUS;

ATMOSPHERICS;

EID: 33750605265     PISSN: 00320633     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.pss.2006.04.021     Document Type: Article

References (145)

1. Anders E. Chemical processes in the early Solar System as inferred from meteorites. Acc. Chem. Res. 1 (1968) 289-298
2. Ayres T.R. Evolution of the solar ionizing flux. J. Geophys. Res. 102 (1997) 1641-1651
3. Ayres T.R., Alexander B., Osten R.A., Huenemoerder D.P., Drake J.J., Brickhouse N.S., and Linsky J.L. Chandra, EUVE, HST, and VLA multiwavelength campaign on HR 1099: instrumental capabilities, data reduction, and initial results. Astrophys. J. 549 (2001) 554-577
4. Banks P.M., and Kockarts G. Aeronomy (1973), Academic Press, San Diego, CA
5. Barashy S.S., and Lewis J.S. Chemical structure of the deep atmosphere of Jupiter. Icarus 33 (1975) 593-611
6. Barshay S.S., and Lewis J.S. Chemistry of primitive solar material. Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 14 (1976) 81-94
7. Bauer S.J. Water on Venus: lack or loss? Ann. Geophys. 1 6 (1983) 477-480
8. Bauer S.J., and Lammer H. Planetary Aeronomy: Atmosphere Environments in Planetary Atmospheres (2004), Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York
9. Becker R.H., Clayton R.N., Galimov E.M., Lammer H., Marty B.B., Pepin R.O., and Weiler R. Isotopic signatures in terrestrial planets. Space Sci. Rev. 106 (2003) 377-410
10. Bougher S.W., Engel S., Roble R.G., and Foster B. Comparative terrestrial planet thermospheres 2. Solar cycle variation of global structure and winds at equinox. J. Geophys. Res. 104 (1999) 16,591-16,611
11. Bougher S.W., Engel S., Roble R.G., and Foster B. Comparative terrestrial planet thermospheres 3. Solar cycle variation of global structure and winds at solstices. J. Geophys. Res. 105 (2000) 17,669-17,692
12. Brace L.H., Theis R.F., and Hoegy W.R. Plasma clouds above the ionopause of Venus and their implications. Planet. Space Sci. 30 (1982) 29-37
13. Cameron, A.G.W., Pollack, J.B., 1976. On the origin of the solar system and of Jupiter and its satellites. In: Jupiter: Studies of the Interior, Atmosphere, Magnetosphere and Satellites. Proceedings of the Colloquium, Tucson, AZ, May 19-21, 1975, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, pp. 61-84.
14. Canuto V.M., Levine J.S., Augustsson T.R., and Imhoff C.L. UV radiation from the young sun and oxygen and ozone levels in the prebiological palaeoatmosphere. Nature 296 (1982) 816-820
15. Canuto V.M., Levine J.S., Augustsson T.R., Imhoff C.L., and Giampapa M.S. The young sun and the atmosphere and photochemistry of the early Earth. Nature 305 (1983) 281-286
16. Chamberlain J.W. Planetary coronae and atmospehric evaporation. Planet. Space Sci. 11 (1963) 901-996
17. Chassefière E. Hydrodynamic escape of hydrogen from a hot water-rich atmosphere: the case of Venus. J. Geophys. Res. 101 (1996) 26,039-26,056
18. Chassefière E. Hydrodynamic escape of oxygen from primitive atmospheres: applications to the cases of Venus and Mars. Icarus 124 (1996) 537-552
19. Chassefière E. Loss of water on the young Venus: the effect of a strong primitive solar wind. Icarus 126 (1997) 229-232
20. Chassefière E., and Leblanc F. Mars atmospheric escape and evolution: interaction with the solar wind. Planet. Space Sci. 52 (2004) 1039-1058
21. Chyba C.F., Thomas P.J., Brookshaw L., and Sagan C. Cometary delivery of organic molecules to the early Earth. Science 249 (1990) 366-373
22. Cravens T.E., Kozyra J.U., Nagy A.F., Gombosi T.I., and Kurtz M. Electron impact ionization in the vicinity of comets. J. Geophys. Res. 92 (1987) 7341-7353
23. Cravens T.E., Keller C.N., and Ray B. Photochemical sources of non-thermal neutrals for the exosphere of Titan. Planet. Space Sci. 45 (1997) 889-896
24. Crowley G. Dynamics of the Earth's thermosphere-a review. Rev. Geophys. Suppl. 29 (1991) 1143-1165
25. Cyr K.E., Sears W.D., and Lunine J.I. Distribution and evolution of water ice in the solar nebula: implications for Solar System body formation. Icarus 135 (1998) 537-548
26. Dayhoff M.O., Eck R., Lippincott E.R., and Sagan C. Venus: atmospheric evolution. Science 155 (1967) 556-557
27. + densities in the Venus ionosphere: implications for escape. Geophys. Res. Lett. 12 (1992) 2449-2452
28. Donahue T.M., and Pollack J.B. Origin and evolution of the atmosphere of Venus. In: Hunten D.M., Colin L., Donahue T.M., and Moroz V.I. (Eds). Venus (1983), University of Arizona Press, Tucson 1003-1036
29. Donahue T., Hoffman J.H., and Watson A.J. Venus was wet: a measurement of the ratio of deuterium to hydrogen. Science 216 (1982) 630-633
30. Dorren J.D., and Guinan E.F. The Sun in time: detecting and modelling magnetic inhomogenities on solar-type stars. In: Pap J.M., Frölich C., Hudson H.S., and Solanki S.K. (Eds). The Sun as a Variable Star (1994), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 206-216
31. Durney B. Evidence for changes in the angular velocity of the surface regions of the Sun and stars-comments. In: Sonett C.P., Coleman P.J., and Wilcox J.M. (Eds). Solar Wind (1972), Scientific and Technical Information Office, NASA, Washington 282
32. Erkaev N.V., Penz T., Lammer H., Lichtenegger H.I.M., Wurz P., Biernat H.K., Griessmeier J.-M., and Weiss W.W. Plasma and magnetic field parameters in the vicinity of short periodic giant exoplanets. Astrophys. J. Suppl. 157 (2005) 396-401
33. Fegley B., and Lewis J.S. Thermodynamics of selected trace elements in the Jovian atmosphere. Icarus 38 (1979) 166-179
34. Fegley, B., Lewis, J.S., 1980. Volatile element chemistry in the solar nebula - Na, K, F, Cl, Br, and P. Icarus 41, 439-455.
35. Fox J.L., and Hać A. Spectrum of hot O at the exobases of the terrestrial planets. J. Geophys. Res. 102 (1997) 24,005-24,011
36. Fox J.L., and Sung K.Y. Solar activity variations of the Venus thermosphere/ionosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 106 (2001) 21,305-21,335
37. Gaidos E.J., Henry G.W., and Henry S.M. Spectroscopy and photometry of nearby young solar analogs. Astronom. J. 120 (2000) 1006-1013
38. Girardi L., Bressan A., Bertelli G., and Chiosi C. Low-mass stars evolutionary tracks and isochrones. Girardi, A AS 141 (2000) 371-384
39. Gordiets B.F., and Kulikov Yu.N. On the mechanisms of cooling of the nightside thermosphere of Venus. Adv. Space Res. 5 (1985) 113-117
40. Gordiets B.F., Markov M.N., and Shelepin L.A. The role of infra-red radiation in the energy balance of the upper atmosphere. Kosm. Issled. 15 (1977) 725-735
41. Gordiets B.F., Markov M.N., and Shelepin L.A. Infra-red radiation of the upper atmosphere. Planet. Space Sci. 26 (1978) 933-948
42. Gordiets B.F., Kulikov Yu.N., Markov M.N., and Marov M.Ya. Numerical modelling of the thermospheric heat budget. J. Geophys. Res. 87 (1982) 4504-4514
43. Gough D.O. Theoretical predictions of variations of the solar output. In: White O.R. (Ed). The Solar Output and its Variations (1977), University of Colorado Press, Boulder 451-473
44. Grinspoon D.H., and Lewis J.S. Cometary water on Venus-implications of stochastic impacts. Icarus 74 (1988) 21-35
45. Gross S.H. On the exospheric temperature of hydrogen-dominated planetary atmospheres. J. Atmos. Sci. 29 (1972) 214-217
46. Grießmeier, J.-M., Stadelmann, A., Penz, T., Lammer, H., Selsis, F., Ribas, I., Guinan, E.F., Motschmann, U., Biernat, H.K., Weiss W.W., 2004. The effect of tidal locking on the magnetospheric and atmospheric evolution of "Hot Jupiters". Astron. Astrophys., 425, 753-762.
47. Güdel M., Guinan E.F., and Skinner S.L. The X-ray Sun in time: a study of the long-term evolution of coronae of solar-type stars. Astrophys. J. 483 (1997) 947-960
48. Guinan E.F., and Ribas I. Our changing Sun: the role of solar nuclear evolution and magnetic activity on Earth's atmosphere and climate. In: Montesinos B., Giménz A., and Guinan E.F. (Eds). The Evolving Sun and its Influence on Planetary Environments vol. 269 (2002), ASP, San Francisco 85-107
49. Hartle R.E., Donahue T.M., Grebowsky J.M., and Mayr H.G. Hydrogen and deuterium in the thermosphere of Venus: solar cycle variations and escape. J. Geophys. Res. 101 (1996) 4525-4538
50. Hedin A.E., Nieman H.B., Kasprzak W.T., and Seiff A. Global empirical model of the Venus thermosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 88 (1983) 73-83
51. Hoffman J.H., Hodges Jr. R.R., Donahue T.M., and McElroy M.B. Composition of the Venus lower atmosphere from the Pioneer Venus mass spectrometer. J. Geophys. Res. 85 (1980) 7882-7890
52. Holland H.D. On the chemical evolution of the atmosphere, Part I. In: Brancasio P.J., and Cameron A.G.W. (Eds). The Origin and Evolution of Atmospheres and Oceans (1963), Wiley, New York 86-101
53. Hueso R., and Guillot T. Evolution of the protosolar nebula and formation of the giant planets. Space Sci. Rev. 106 (2003) 105-120
54. Hunten D.M. Atmospheric evolution of the terrestrial planets. Science 259 (1993) 915-920
55. Hunten D.M., Donahue T.M., Walker J.C.G., and Kasting J.F. Escape of atmospheres and loss of water. In: Atreya S.K., Pollack J.B., and Matthews M.S. (Eds). Origin and Evolution of Planetary and Satellite Atmospheres (1987), University of Arizona Press, Tucson 386-423
56. Ingersoll A.P. The runaway greenhouse: a history of water on Venus. J. Atmos. Sci. 26 (1969) 1191-1198
57. Ip W.-H. On a hot oxygen corona of Mars. Icarus 76 (1988) 135-145
58. Jacchia, L.G., 1977. Thermospheric temperature, density and composition: new models. Spec Report vol. 375, Smithson. Inst. Astrophys. Obs., Cambridge, MA, USA.
59. Jakosky B.M., Pepin R.O., Johnson R.E., and Fox J.L. Mars atmospheric loss and isotopic fractionation by solar-wind induced sputtering and photochemical escape. Icarus 111 (1994) 271-288
60. Johnson N.M., and Fegley B. Water on Venus: new insights from tremolite decomposition. Icarus 146 (2000) 301-306
61. Kallio E., Luhmann J.G., and Barabash S. Charge exchange near Mars: the solar wind absorption and energetic neutral atom production. J. Geophys. Res. 102 (1997) 22,183-22,197
62. Kaltenegger, L., Fridlund, M., 2005. The Darwin mission: search for extra-solar planets. Adv. Space Res. 36, 1114-1122.
63. Kasprzak W.T., Keating G.M., Hsu N.C., Stewart I.F., Coldwell W.B., and Bougher S.W. Solar cycle behavior of the thermosphere. In: Bougher S.W., Hunten D.M., and Phillips R.J. (Eds). Venus II (1997), University of Arizona Press, London 225-258
64. Kasting J.F. Runaway and moist greenhouse atmospheres and the evolution of Earth and Venus. Icarus 74 (1988) 472-494
65. Kasting J.F., and Catling D. Evolution of a habitable planet. Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 41 (2003) 429-463
66. Kasting J.F., and Pollack J.B. Loss of water from Venus I. Hydrodynamic escape of hydrogen. Icarus 53 (1983) 479-508
67. Kasting J.F., Pollack J.B., and Ackerman T.P. Response of Earth's atmosphere to increases in solar flux and implications for loss of water from Venus. Icarus 57 (1984) 335-355
68. Keating, G.M., Tolson, R.H., Schellenberg, T.J., Hsu, N.C., Bougher, S.W., 1998. Study of Venus upper atmosphere using Magellan drag measurements. Second Ann. Progress Report NAG5-6081, NASA, Washington, DC.
69. Kella D.P., Johnson P.J., Pedersen H.B., Vejby-Christensen L., and Andersen L.H. The source of green light emission determined from a heavy-ion storage ring experiment. Science 276 (1997) 1530-1533
70. Kim J., Nagy A.F., Fox J.L., and Craven T. Solar cycle variability of hot oxygen atoms at Mars. J. Geophys. Res. 103 (1998) 29,339-29,342
71. Lammer H., and Bauer S.J. Nonthermal atmospheric escape from Mars and Titan. J. Geophys. Res. 96 (1991) 1819-1825
72. Lammer H., and Bauer S.J. Isotope fractionation by gravitational escape. Space Sci. Rev. 106 (2003) 281-292
73. Lammer H., Stumptner W., and Bauer S.J. Upper limit for the Martian exospheric number density during the PlanetB/Nozomi mission. Planet. Space Sci. 48 (2000) 1473-1478
74. Lammer H., Stumptner W., Molina-Cuberos G.J., Bauer S.J., and Owen T. Nitrogen isotope fractionation and its consequence for Titan's atmospheric evolution. Planet. Space Sci. 48 (2000) 529-543
75. Lammer H., Lichtenegger H.I.M., Kolb C., Ribas I., Guinan E.F., Abart R., and Bauer S.J. Loss of water from Mars: implications for the oxidation of the soil. Icarus 106 (2003) 9-25
76. Lammer H., Selsis F., Ribas I., Guinan E.F., Bauer S.J., and Weiss W.W. Atmospheric loss of exoplanets resulting from stellar X-ray and extreme ultraviolet heating. Astrophys. J. 598 (2003) L121-L124
77. Lammer, H., Lichtenegger, H.I.M., Biernat, H.K., Erkaev, N.V., Arshukova, I.L., Kolb, C., Gunell, H., Lukyanov, A., Holmstrom, M., Barabash, S., Zhang, T.L., Baumjohann, W., 2006. Loss of hydrogen and oxygen from the upper atmosphere of Venus. Planet. Space Sci., in press, doi:10.1016/j.pss.2006.04.022.
78. Lean J.L., Mariska J.T., and Acton L.W. Co-temporal evolution of magnetic sources of coronal and chromospheric/photospheric irradiance variability. American Astronomical Society, Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 29 (1997) 917
79. Lecavelier des Etangs A., Vidal-Madjar A., McConnell J.C., and Hébrard G. Atmospheric escape from hot Jupiters. Astrom. Astrophys. 418 (2004) L1-L4
80. Lewis J.S. Venus: atmospheric and lithospheric composition. Earth and Planet. Sci. Lett. 10 (1970) 73-80
81. Lewis J.S. Low temperature condensation from solar nebula. Icarus 16 (1972) 241-252
82. Lewis J.S. Chemistry of the outer Solar System. Space Sci. Rev. 14 (1973) 401-410
83. Lewis J.S. The temperature gradient in the solar nebula. Science 186 (1974) 440-443
84. Lewis J.S., and Prinn R.G. Planets and Their Atmospheres: Origin and Evolution (1984), Academic Press, New York
85. Lichtenegger H.I.M., and Dubinin E.M. Model calculations of the planetary ion distribution in the Martian tail. Earth Planets Space 50 (1998) 445-452
86. Lichtenegger, H.I.M., Lammer, H., Stumptner, W., 2002. Energetic neutral atoms at Mars: III. Flux and energy distributions of planetary energetic H atoms. J. Geophys. Res. 107 (A10), 1279, doi10.1029/2001JA000322.
87. Linsky J.L., and Wood B.E. Hydrogen walls: Mass loss of dwarf stars and the young Sun. In: Suess S.T., and Poletto G. (Eds). The Sun and the Heliosphere as an Integrated System vol. 1 (2004), Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht
88. Luhmann J.G. A model of the ionospheric tail rays of Venus. J. Geophys. Res. 98 (1993) 17,615-17,621
89. Luhmann J.G. Correction to "The ancient oxygen exosphere of Mars: implications for atmospheric evolution". J. Geophys. Res. 102 (1997) 1637
90. Luhmann J.G., and Kozyra J.U. Dayside pickup oxygen ion precipitation at Venus and Mars: spatial distributions, energy deposition and consequences. J. Geophys. Res. 96 (1991) 5457-5467
91. Lundin R., and Barabash S. Evolution of the Martian atmosphere and hydrosphere: solar wind erosion studied by ASPERA-3 on Mars Express. Planet. Space Sci. 52 (2004) 1059-1071
92. Lunine J.I., Yung Y.L., and Lorenz R.D. On the volatile inventory of Titan from isotopic abundances in nitrogen and methane. Planet. Space Sci. 47 (1999) 1291-1303
93. McElroy M.B., Prather M.J., and Rodriguez J.M. Escape of hydrogen from Venus. Science 215 (1982) 1614-1615
94. Michel C.F. Solar-wind induced mass loss from magnetic field-free planets. Planet. Space Sci. 19 (1971) 1580-1583
95. Morbidelli A., Chambers J., Lunine J.I., Petit J.M., Robert F., Valsecchi G.B., and Cyr K. Source regions and timescales for the delivery of water to Earth. Meteoritics Planet Sci. 35 (2000) 1309-1320
96. Moroz, V.I., Parfentev, N.A., Sanko, N.F., 1979. Spectrophotometric experiment during the descent phase of Venera 11 and Venera 12. II-analysis of Venera-11 spectral data by the method of added layers. Kosmicheskie Issledovaniia (in Russian), 727-742.
97. Nagy A.F., and Cravens T.E. Hot oxygen atoms in the upper atmospheres of Venus and Mars. Geophys. Res. Lett. 15 (1988) 433-435
98. Nagy A.F., Cravens T.E., Yee J.H., and Stewart A.I.F. Hot oxygen atoms in the upper atmosphere of Venus. Geophys. Res. Lett. 8 (1981) 629-632
99. Nagy A.F., Kim J., and Cravens T.E. Hot hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the upper atmosphere of Venus and Mars. Ann. Geophys. 8 (1990) 251-256
100. 9.6 years. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta Suppl. 13 (1980) 293-301
101. Nieman H.B., Hartle R.E., Kasprzak W.T., Spencer N.W., Hunten D.M., and Carignan G.R. Venus upper atmosphere neutral composition: preliminary results from Pioneer Venus orbiter. Science 203 (1979) 770-772
102. Nieman H.B., Hartle R.E., Hedin A.E., Kasprzak W.T., Spencer N.W., Hunten D.M., and Carignan G.R. Venus upper atmosphere neutral composition: first observations of the diurnal variations. Science 205 (1979) 54-56
103. Niemann H.B., Kasprzak W.T., Hedin A.E., Hunten D.M., and Spencer W. Mass spectrometer measurements of the neutral gas composition of the thermosphere and exosphere of Venus. J. Geophys. Res. 85 (1980) 7817-7827
104. Öpik E.J. Selective escape of gases. Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc. 7 (1963) 490-509
105. Parker E.N. The generation of magnetic fields in astrophysical bodies. I. The dynamo equations. Astrophys. J. 162 (1970) 665-673
106. Penz, T., Lammer, H., Kulikov, Yu.N., Biernat, H.K., 2005. The influence of the solar particle and radiation environment on Titan's atmosphere evolution. Adv. Space Res. 36, 241-250.
107. Pepin O.R. Evolution of Earth's noble gases: consequences of assuming hydrodynamic loss driven by giant impact. Icarus 126 (1997) 148-156
108. Pepin R.O. On the origin and early evolution of terrestrial planet atmospheres and meteoritic volatiles. Icarus 92 (1991) 2-79
109. Pepin R.O. Evolution of the Martian atmosphere. Icarus 111 (1994) 289-304
110. Pepin R.O. Xenon in the primordial martian atmosphere. Met. & Planet. Sci., Suppl. 35 (2000) A126
111. Pepin R.O. On the isotopic composition of primordial xenon in terrestrial planet atmospheres. Space Sci. Rev. 92 (2000) 371-395
112. Pollack J.B. A nongrey calculation of the runaway greenhouse: implications for Venus' past and present. Icarus 14 (1971) 295-306
113. 2 in the Venus atmosphere. Nature 226 (1970) 1037-1039
114. Raymond S.N., Quinn T., and Lunine J.I. Making other earths: dynamical simulations of terrestrial planet formation and water delivery. Icarus 168 (2004) 1-17
115. Ribas I., Guinan E.F., Güdel M., and Audard M. Evolution of the solar activity over time and effects on planetary atmospheres. I. High-energy irradiances (1-1700 over(A, ̊)). Astrophys. J. 622 (2005) 680-694
116. Richards P.G., and Torr D.G. Ratios of photoelectron to EUV ionization rates for aeronomic studies. J. Geophys. Res. 93 (1988) 4060-4066
117. Rodriguez J.M., Prather M.J., and McElroy M.B. Hydrogen on Venus: exospheric distribution and escape. Planet. Space Sci. 32 (1984) 1235-1255
118. Russell C.T., Luhmann J.G., Elphic R.C., Scarf F.L., and Brace L.H. Magnetic field and plasma wave observations in a plasma cloud at Venus. Geophys. Res. Lett. 9 (1982) 45-48
119. Shimazu Y., and Urabe T. An energetic study of the evolution of the terrestrial and Cytherean atmospheres. Icarus 9 (1968) 498-506
120. Shinagawa H., Cravens T.E., and Nagy A.F. A one-dimensional time-dependent model of the magnetized ionosphere of Venus. J. Geophys. Res. 92 (1987) 7317-7330
121. Shunk R.W., and Nagy A.F. Ionospheres of the terrestrial planets. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 18 (1980) 813-852
122. Shunk R.W., and Nagy A.F. Ionospheres-Physics, Plasma, Physics, and Chemistry (2000), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
123. Simon T., Boesgaard A.M., and Herbig G. The evolution of chromospheric activity and the spin-down of solar-type stars. Astrophys. J. 293 (1985) 551-570
124. Skumanich A. Timescales for CA II emission decay, rotational braking and lithium depletion. Astrophys. J. 171 (1972) 565-567
125. Soderblom D.R. Rotational studies of late-type stars. I-rotational velocities of solar-type stars. Astrophys. J. 263 (1982) 239-251
126. Smith L.L., and Gross S.H. The evolution of water vapor in the atmosphere of Venus. J. Atmos. Sci. 29 (1972) 173-178
127. Smith D.S., Scalo J., and Wheeler J.G. Transport of ionizing radiation in terrestrial-like exoplanet atmospheres. Icarus 171 (2004) 229-253
128. Spreiter J.R., and Stahara S.S. Solar wind flow past Venus: theory and comparisons. J. Geophys. Res. 98 (1980) 17,251-17,262
129. Terada, N., Machida, S., Shinagawa, H., 2002. Global hybrid simulation of the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability at the Venus ionopause. J. Geophys. Res. 107 (A12), 1471-1490, doi10.1029/2001JA009224.
130. Tian F., Toon O.B., Pavlov A.A., and De Sterck H. A hydrogen-rich early Earth atmosphere. Science 308 (2005) 1014-1017
131. Turekian K.K., and Clark Jr. S.P. The non-homogeneous accumulation model for terrestrial planet formation and the consequences for the atmosphere of Venus. J. Atmos. Sci. 32 (1975) 1257-1261
132. Vidal-Madjar A., Lecavelier des Etangs A., Désert J.-M., Ballester G.E., Ferlet R., Hébrard G., and Mayor M. An extended upper atmosphere around the extrasolar planet HD209458b. Nature 422 (2003) 143-146
133. Vidal-Madjar A., Désert J.-M., Lecavelier des Etangs A., Hébrard G., Ballester G.E., Ehrenreich D., Ferlet R., McConnell J.C., Mayor M., and Parkinson C.D. Detection of oxygen and carbon in the hydrodynamically escaping atmosphere of the extrasolar planet HD209458b. Astrophys. J. 604 (2004) L69-L72
134. Von Zahn U., Fricke K.H., Hunten D.M., Krankowsky D., Mauersberger K., and Nier A.O. The upper atmosphere of Venus during morning conditions. J. Geophys. Res. 85 (1980) 7829-7840
135. Walker J.C.G. Evolution of the atmosphere of Venus. J. Atmos. Sci. 32 (1975) 1248-1256
136. Walker J.C.G. Evolution of the Atmosphere (1977), Macmillian, New York
137. Watson A.J., Donahue T.M., and Walker J.C.G. The dynamics of a rapidly escaping atmosphere: applications to the evolution of Earth and Venus. Icarus 48 (1981) 150-166
138. 36Ar on Venus. Icarus 46 (1981) 70-80
139. 2 emission from Mira B in ultraviolet spectra from the Hubble Space Telescope. Astrophys. J. 556 (2001) L51-L54
140. Wood B.E., Müller H.-R., Zank G., and Linsky J.L. Measured mass loss rates of solar-like stars as a function of age and activity. Astrophys. J. 574 (2002) 412-425
141. Wood B.E., Müller H.-R., Zank G.P., Linsky J.L., and Redfield S. New mass-loss measurements from astrospheric Ly-α absorption. Astrophys. J. 628 (2005) L143-L146
142. Zahnle K.J., and Walker J.C.G. The evolution of solar ultraviolet luminosity. Rev. Geophys. 20 (1982) 280-292
143. Zahnle K., Pollack J.B., and Kasting J.F. Mass fractionation of noble gases in diffusion-limited hydrodynamic hydrogen escape. Icarus 84 (1990) 503-527
144. Zhang M.H.G., Luhmann J.G., Bougher S.W., and Nagy A.F. The ancient oxygen atmosphere of Mars: implications for atmosphere evolution. J. Geophys. Res. 98 (1993) 10,915-10,923
145. Zhang M.H.G., Luhmann J.G., Nagy A.F., Spreiter J.R., and Stahara S.S. Oxygen ionization rates at Mars and Venus: relative contributions of impact ionization and charge exchange. J. Geophys. Res. 98 (1993) 3311-3318