The myth of abandonment: The use and abuse of the Holocaust analogy

Security Studies

Volumn 15, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 106-145

  Desch, Michael C ^a  

^a TEXAS A AND M UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 33748318140     PISSN: 09636412     EISSN: 15561852     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09636410600666295     Document Type: Article

References (264)

1. Richard Cohen, "A Look Into the Void; Kosovo as Holocaust Analogy," The Washington Post, 16 April 1999.
2. David Frum and Richard Perle, An End to Evil: How to Win the War on Terror (New York: Random House, 2004), vii.
3. Paul Wolfowitz, "60th Anniversary of Liberation of Nazi Camps," U.S. Department of Defense, 24 January 2005, http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/2005.
4. Jimmy Carter, speech at U.S. Holocaust Museum dedication, quoted in David S. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945 (New York: The New Press, 1998), 342.
5. George H. W. Bush, speech at U.S. Holocaust Museum ground-breaking, quoted in The Abandonment of the Jews (see note 4), 342.
6. Bill Clinton, speech at the U.S. Holocaust Museum dedication, quoted in The Abandonment of the Jews (see note 4), 343.
7. Richard Nixon, Beyond Peace (New York: Random House, 1994), 143.
8. George W. Bush, "Remarks by the President in Days of Remembrance Observance," speech released by the Office of the Press Secretary, 24 April 2001, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/04/print/ 20010424-3.html.
9. John McCain, "Why Israel," Reader's Digest, December 2003, 126-27.
10. Stephen J. Solarz and Michael E. O'Hanlon, "Humanitarian Intervention: When is Force Justified?" Washington Quarterly 20, no. 4 (Autumn 1997): 3.
11. Thomas E. Ricks, "Holding Their Ground," The Washington Post, 23 December 2003.
12. Ernest R. May, "Lessons" of the Past: The Use and Misuse of History in American Foreign Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), xi.
13. Also see Richard L. Berke, "In the White House, a Sense of What History Can Teach," The New York Times, 9 January 2002, http://www.nytimes.com/.
14. Andrew J. Taylor and John T. Rourke, "Historical Analogies in the Congressional Foreign Policy Process," Journal of Politics 57, no. 2 (May 1995): 460-68.
15. Yuen Foong Khong, Analogies at War: Korea, Munich, Dien Bien Phu, and the Vietnam Decisions of 1965 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 63.
16. Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, "Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases," Science 185, no. 4157 (27 September 1974): 1124.
17. Also see David Patrick Houghton, U.S. Foreign Policy and the Iran Hostage Crisis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 24.
18. Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976), 227.
19. David Rieff, At the Point of a Gun: Democratic Dreams and Armed Intervention (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2005), 146.
20. For evidence of the Bush administration's pre-9/11 preoccupation with ousting Saddam, see Ron Suskind, The Price of Loyalty: George W. Bush, the White House, and the Education of Paul O'Neill (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004), 84-86.
21. May, "Lessons" of the Past, xi. Also cf. 179.
22. Glenn Snyder and Paul Diesing, Conflict Among Nations: Bargaining, Decision Making, and System Structure in International Crises (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977), chap. 4 cited in Jervis, Perception and Misperception, 228, fn 21.
23. Thomas Gilovich, "Seeing the Past in the Present: The Effect of Associations to Familiar Events on Judgments and Decisions," The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40, no. 5 (1981): 807.
24. Jervis, Perception and Misperception, 281-82.
25. Also see Robert Jervis, "Political Decision Making: Recent Contributions," Political Psychology 2, no. 2 (Summer 1980): 99.
26. Rose McDermott, "The Feeling of Rationality: The Meaning of Neuroscientific Advances for Political Science," Perspectives on Politics 2, no. 4 (December 2004): 696
27. Philip E. Tetlock, A. Peter McGraw, and Orie V. Kristel, "Proscribed Forms of Social Cognition: Taboo Trade-offs, Blocked Exchanges, Forbidden Base Rates, and Historical Counterfactuals," in Relation Models Theory: A Contemporary Overview, ed. N. Halsam (Mabway, NJ: Erlbaum, 2004), 247-62
28. and Charles S. Maier, "A Surfeit of Memory? Reflections on History, Melancholy and Denial," History and Memory 5, no. 2 (1993): 136-40.
29. Maurice Halbwachs, On Collective Memory, trans. and ed. Lewis A. Coser (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 224.
30. For useful discussions of how elites abuse history, see Jack Snyder, Myths of Empire: Domestic Politics and International Ambition (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991)
31. and Stuart Kaufman, Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001).
32. Khong, Analogies at War, 7-9.
33. Peter Novick, The Holocaust in American Life (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1999), 46
34. and Tom Segev, The Seventh Million: The Israelis and the Holocaust (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993), 18.
35. Dean Rusk, As I Saw It (New York: W.W. Norton, 1990), 144-45.
36. Harry S. Truman, Memoirs by Harry S. Truman, vol. 1, Year of Decisions (Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Doubleday, 1955), 132.
37. Henry Kissinger, The White House Years (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), 342.
38. Jimmy Carter, The Blood of Abraham (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985), 35.
39. Steven A. Ludsin, letter to the editor, The New York Times, 25 July 1978.
40. Baylis Thomas, How Israel Was Won: A Concise History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict (Lanthan, MD: Lexington Books, 1999), 42-43.
41. Ahron Bregmand and Jihan El-Tahri, The Fifty Years' War: Israel and the Arabs (New York: T.V. Books, 1998), 28, 38-39.
42. Howard M. Sacher, A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time, 2nd ed. (New York: Knopf, 1996), 303
43. and Simha Flapan, The Birth of Israel: Myths and Realities (New York: Pantheon Books, 1987), 70, 123.
44. On this mixed influence of the lobby, see Warren Bass, Support Any Friend: Kennedy's Middle East and the Making of the U.S.-Israel Alliance (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003)
45. and Adam Garfinkle, "The Israel Lobby, Part II," Prospect, 29 August 2002, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe/document?_m= 7533a4e6df2e2cdaf072516d9acbd7c8&_docnum=2&wchp= dGLbVlbzSkVA&_md5=9d7ff71f94da1860a1150e151bddff6c
46. Michael B. Oren, Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 234.
47. See Sammy Smooha, "Ethnic Democracy: Israel as an Archetype," Israel Studies 2, no. 2 (1997): 199-200
48. Emanuele Ottolenghi, "Religion and Democracy in Israel," The Political Quarterly 71, no. 3 (2000): 44
49. Ahmad H. Sa'di, "Israel as Ethnic Democracy: What Are the Implications for the Palestinian Minority?" Arab Studies Quarterly 22, no. 1 (Winter 2000): 1-12
50. and As'ad Ghanem, Nadim Rouhana, and Oren Yiftachel, "Questioning 'Ethnic Democracy': A Response to Sammy Smooha," Israel Studies 3, no. 2 (1998): 253-67.
51. Novick, The Holocaust in American Life.
52. Robert D. Kaplan, The Coming Anarchy: Shattering the Dreams of the Post Cold War (New York: Random House, 2000), 99.
53. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews, 342.
54. Steve Coll, "In the Shadow of the Holocaust," The Washington Post Magazine, 25 September 1994.
55. Bill Clinton, quoted in Les Payne, "Of Kosovo, Rwanda, and the Holocaust," Newsday, 18 April 1999.
56. Samantha Power, "A Problem from Hell:" America and the Age of Genocide (New York: Basic Books, 2002), xxi.
57. David Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace: Bush, Clinton, and the Generals (New York: Scriber, 2001), 129.
58. Also see Roy Gutman, Witness to Genocide: The 1993 Pulitzer Prize Dispatches (New York Macmillan, 1993).
59. Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace, 166, 197.
60. Nina Bernstein, "Holocaust Parallel to Bosnia Horrors," Newsday, 22 October 1992.
61. Rabbi Haskel Lookstein, quoted in Bruce Stanley, "Jews Outraged, Chilled By Tales of Death Camps," Newsday, 6 August 1992.
62. Henry Siegman, "The Holocaust Analogy is Too True: A Muslim People Are Targeted for Extinction, and the West Turns Away," Los Angles Times, 11 July 1993.
63. Elie Wiesel, quoted in Doyle McManus, "Agony at the Top: Bosnia May Be Clinton Vietnam," Los Angeles Times, 29 April 1993.
64. Nixon, Beyond Peace, 154.
65. Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace, 134, 191.
66. Jacques Steinberg, "In Ceremony of Remembrance, Reminders of Human Courage," The New York Times, 19 April 1993, B6.
67. Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace, 341ff.
68. Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace, 330.
69. On the Bosnian crisis in general, see Richard Holbrooke, To End a War (New York: The Modern Library, 1999).
70. For an insider's history of the Kosovo crisis, see General Wesley K. Clark, Waging Modern War: Bosnia, Kosovo, and the Future of Conflict (New York: Public Affairs, 2001).
71. Linton Weeks, "A Night to Never Forget; At the White House, Elie Wiesel Carries on the Lessons of the Holocaust," The Washington Post, 13 April 1999.
72. Charles Radin, "Role of Rights Debated in US Kosovo Action," The Boston Globe, 12 July 1999.
73. Bill Clinton, quoted in Anthony Lewis, "On a Wing and Prayer," The New York Times, 15 May 1999.
74. Hillary Clinton, quoted in Phil Davison, "War In the Balkans: Hillary Joins Celebrity War Zone Tours, Macedonia," The Independent, 15 May 1999.
75. Gerhard Schroeder, quoted in Cohen, "A Look Into the Void."
76. Halberstam, 130-31
77. and David Rieff, At the Point of a Gun, 35-36.
78. U.S. Department of Defense, "Deputy Secretary Wolfowitz Interview with Sam Tannenhaus, Vanity Fair," news transcript, 9 May 2003, http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/2003/tr20030509-depsecdef0223.html
79. For additional evidence that WMD and links to al Qaeda were not central to the case the Bush administration made for war in confidential discussions with close allies like the United Kingdom, see "The Secret Downing Street Memo," reproduced in Mark Danner, "The Secret Way to War," The New York Review of Books 52, no. 10 (9 June 2005), http://www.nybooks.com/articles/18034.
80. George W. Bush, "Remarks by the President in Address to the Nation," speech released by the Office of the Press Secretary, 17 March 2003, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/ 03/20030317-7.html.
81. Bob Woodward, Plan of Attack (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004), 320-21.
82. Paul Wolfowitz, quoted in Peter J. Boyer, "The Believer," The New Yorker, 1 November 2002, http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/ ?041101fa_fact.
83. Douglas Feith, quoted in Jeffrey Goldberg, "A Little Learning: What Douglas Feith Knew, and When He Knew It," The New Yorker, 9 May 2005, http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050509fa_fact.
84. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews, xiii.
85. Novick, The Holocaust in American Life, 245.
86. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews, 5.
87. Adolph Hitler, quoted in Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1985), 159.
88. Henry R. Hultenbach, "The Emigration of Jews from Worms (November 1938-October 1941): Hopes and Plans," in Rescue Attempts During the Holocaust: Proceedings of the Second Yad Vashem International Historical Conference, ed. Yisrael Gutman and Efraim Zuroff (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 1977), 270, 283.
89. David S.Wyman, PaperWalls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1938-1941 (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts, 1968), 211.
90. Rabbi Stephen Wise, quoted in Truman, Memoirs, 144.
91. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews, 83-4.
92. Gerhard Riegner, "The Allies and Auschwitz: A Participant's View" in The Bombing of Auschwitz: Should the Allies Have Attempted It? ed. Michael J. Neufeld and Michael Berenbum (Lawrence: The University of Kansas Press, 2003), 77.
93. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews, 288
94. and David S. Wyman, "Why Auschwitz Was Never Bombed,"Commentary 65, no. 5 (May 1978): 37-46.
95. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews, 287.
96. Ibid., 240.
97. Richard Breitman, Official Secrets: What the Nazis Planned, What the British and Americans Knew (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998).
98. The classic indictment is found in Rolf Hochhuth's play, The Deputy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1964).
99. John Cornwell, Hitler's Pope: The Secret History of Pius XII (New York: Penguin, 1999), 280; cf. 215, 268-97.
100. Daniel J. Goldhagen, "What Would Jesus Do?" The New Republic, 21 January 2002.
101. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews, xv.
102. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews, 335.
103. Also see, by way of comparison, Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil (New York: Penguin Press, 1964), 156-57.
104. Ellen Goodman, "Facing Bosnia's Quagmire of Questions," Newsday, 19 May 1993.
105. Arthur Koestler, quoted in Richard Cohen, "It's Not a Holocaust, Rhetoric and Reality in Bosnia," The Washington Post, 28 February 1993.
106. William D. Rubinstein, The Myth of Rescue: Why the Democracies Could Not Have Saved More Jews From the Nazis (London: Routledge, 1997), x.
107. One estimate suggests that 91% of German applicants were "Hebrew." See Twenty-Fourth Annual Report of the Secretary of Labor for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1936 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1936 95. U.S. consuls also understood that the percentage of Jewish immigrants was understated because of inconsistencies in listing race and nationality on applications.
108. See Wm. Ware Adams, Vice Consul, "Current Immigration to the United States from the Consular District of Berlin, Germany," 1 November 1934 [STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL], State Department Decimal Files, 811.111, "Quota," Box 165, National Archives and Record Administration (NARA), 6-7.
109. Samuel W. Honecker, American Consul General, Stuttgart, to Secretary of State, 24 June 1937, Re: "Comment Regarding Charges of Improper Conduct of Immigration Work at Stuttgart," State Department Decimal Files, 811.111, "Quota," Box 165, NARA, 6.
110. Richard Breitman and Alan M. Kraut, American Refugee Policy and European Jewry, 1933-1945 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 9
111. and Werner Rosenstock, "Exodus 1933-1939: A Survey of Jewish Emigration from Germany," Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook no. 1 (London: Leo Baeck Institute, 1956), 390.
112. Twenty-Seventh Annual Report of the Secretary of Labor for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30th, 1939 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1939), 92
113. Twenty-Eighth Annual Report of the Secretary of Labor for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30th, 1940 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1940), 103
114. and Rubinstein, Myth of Rescue, 35.
115. Herbert A. Strauss, "Jewish Emigration From Germany: Nazi Politics and Jewish Responses (I)," Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook no. 25 (London: Leo Baeck Institute, 1980), 327.
116. John V. H. Dippel, Bound Upon a Wheel of Fire: Why So Many Jews Made the Tragic Decision to Remain in Nazi Germany (New York: Basic Books, 1996).
117. Werner Weinberg, "Why I Did Not Leave Nazi Germany in Time," The Christian Century, 21 April 1982, 480
118. and Rubinstein, Myth of Rescue, 15-62.
119. American Consulate, Stuttgart, to Secretary of State, 20 January 1938, Re: "Summary of Visa Work in 1937 and Prospective Demands in 1938," State Department Decimal File, 811.111, "Quota," Box 165, NARA, 4-7.
120. Hilberg, The Destruction of European Jews, 123-24, 213.
121. Abraham Margaliot, "The Reaction of the Jewish Public in Germany to the Nuremberg Laws," Yad Vashem Studies 12 (1977): 102-103.
122. Strauss, "Jewish Emigration," 318, Table IIIa.
123. Geoffrey Wheatcroft, The Controversy of Zion: Jewish Nationalism, the Jewish State, and the Unresolved Jewish Dilemma (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1996), 118.
124. Rosenstock, "Exodus," 378, fn 1.
125. Rubinstein, Myth of Rescue, 75, 77, 215
126. Segev, The Seventh Million, 42
127. and Benny Morris, Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881-1999 (New York: Knopf, 1999), 107.
128. Segev, The Seventh Million, 101.
129. Hilberg, The Destruction of European Jews, 7
130. and Rubinstein, Myth of Rescue, 70.
131. Also see Christopher S. Browning, "The Decision Concerning the Final Solution," in Unanswered Questions: Nazi Germany and the Genocide of the Jews, ed. François Furet (New York: Schoken Books, 1989), 96-118. Browning discusses the longstanding debate among Holocaust scholars between the "intentionalists," who believe the Final Solution was an integral part of the National Socialist program from the beginning, and the "functionalists," who believe the decision to make the physical elimination of the Jews the centerpiece of the Final Solution came relatively late at the Wannsee Conference on 20 January 1942.
132. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews, 42.
133. There was certainly some evidence of large-scale killings earlier in the war, as Richard Breitman documents in Official Secrets, but the intelligence available to the Allies was quite fragmentary and only in retrospect is suggestive of an effort to eliminate all of Europe's Jews. See Robert J. Hanyock, Eavesdropping on Hell: Historical Guide to Western Communications Intelligence and the Holocaust, 1939-1945, 2nd ed. (Ft. Meade, MD: Center for Cryptologic History, 2005), 122-32.
134. Rubinstein, Myth of Rescue, 84.
135. Cordell Hull, memorandum, quoted in James H. Kitchens, "The Bombing of Auschwitz Reexamined," The Journal of Military History 58, no. 2 (April 1994): 237-38.
136. For accounts of other discussions, see Richard H. Levy, "The Bombing of Auschwitz Revisited: A Critical Analysis," Holocaust and Genocide Studies 10, no. 3 (Winter 1996): 274.
137. Levy, "The Bombing of Auschwitz Revisited," 286.
138. For an argument that bombing Auschwitz would have diverted significant numbers of aircraft from the Normandy campaign, see Tami Davis Biddle, "Allied Air Power: Objectives and Capabilities," in The Bombing of Auschwitz, 36-37.
139. Levy, "The Bombing of Auschwitz Revisited," 268.
140. Rubinstein, Myth of Rescue, 162.
141. Rubinstein, Myth of Rescue, 162-63
142. and Richard Foregger, "'The Western Allies and the Holocaust': Technical Analysis of the Methods to Bomb the Gas Chambers at Auschwitz,"Holocaust and Genocide Studies 5, no. 4 (Winter 1990): 416.
143. Kitchens, "The Bombing of Auschwitz Re-examined," 246-49
144. Dino Brugioni and Robert G. Poirier, "The Holocaust Revisited: A Retrospective Analysis of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Extermination Complex," Studies in Intelligence: 45th Anniversary Issue (Fall 2000): 105. After extensive re-evaluation of World War II-era reconnaissance photographs, employing late 1970s-era technology, Brugioni and Poirier conclude these photos would not have been useful at the time to Allied targeteers.
145. Kitchens, "The Bombing of Auschwitz Re-examined," 239, 250.
146. Gerhard Weinberg, "The Allies and the Holocaust," in The Bombing of Auschwitz, 25.
147. Also see Joseph Robert White, "Target Auschwitz: Historical and Hypothetical German Responses to Allied Attack," Holocaust and Genocide Studies 16, no. 1 (Spring 2002): 65-66.
148. Even the author of the most sophisticated technical case for the feasibility of bombing the gas chamber/crematoria complexes admits that a successful strike was unlikely to stop the Nazis from killing large numbers of Jews. See Rondall R. Rice, "Bombing Auschwitz: U.S. Fifteenth Air Force and the Military Aspects of a Possible Attack," in The Bombing of Auschwitz, 179.
149. Hilberg, The Destruction of European Jews, Table B-1 notes that the Nazis killed 1,300,000 Jews in "open-air shootings" before the Nazi death-camp system was fully functional. Also see Levy, "The Bombing of Auschwitz Revisited," 280-81
150. and Richard Rhodes, Masters of Death: The SS-Einsatzgruppen and the Invention of the Holocaust (New York: Vintage, 2003).
151. Kitchens, "The Bombing of Auschwitz Re-examined," 266.
152. Breitman and Kraut, American Refugee Policy, 203.
153. Rubinstein, Myth of Rescue, 182-90.
154. Ibid., 203.
155. His Holiness Pope Pius XI, "Mit Brennender Sorge: Encyclical on the Church and the German Reich, March 14, 1937," http://www.newadvent.org/library/docs pi11mb.htm.
156. On Pius XII's involvement in an early anti-Hitler plot within the Wehrmacht, see Cornwell, Hitler's Pope, 203, 234-40.
157. Robert A. Graham, S.J., Pius XII's Defense of Jews and Others: 1944-45 (Milwaukee: Catholic League for Religious and Civil Rights, 1982)
158. Anthony Rhodes, The Vatican in the Age of the Dictators (1922-1945) (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1973)
159. and Pierre Blet, S.J., Pius XII and the Second World War: According to the Archives of the Vatican (Mahwak, NJ: Paulist Press, 1999).
160. On the killings of millions of Polish Catholics, including clergy, see Richard C. Lukas, Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles Under German Occupation, 1939-1944 (New York: Hippocrene Books, 2001), 38-39.
161. For evidence that Hitler planned the eventual destruction of organized Christianity, see Joe Sharkey, "The Case Against the Nazis; How Hitler's Forces Planned to Destroy German Christianity," Week in Review, The New York Times, 13 January 2002.
162. Cornwell, Hitler's Pope, 286-87.
163. Also see Sharkey, "The Case Against the Nazis."
164. Adolph Berle, quoted in Breitman, Official Secrets, 186-87.
165. Novick, Holocaust in American Life, 44.
166. Rabbi Wise, quoted in Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews, 25; cf. 33, 5.
167. Segev, The Seventh Million, 99.
168. Jervis, Perception and Misperception, 223.
169. See Norman G. Finklestein and Ruth Bettina Birn, A Nation On Trial: The Goldhagen Thesis and Historical Truth (New York: An Owl Book, 1998).
170. On how politicized Holocaust historiography can distort our understanding of what actually happened, see Frank W. Brecher, "'The Western Allies and the Holocaust': David Wyman and the Historiography of America's Response to the Holocaust: Counter-Considerations," Holocaust and Genocide Studies 5, no. 4 (Winter 1990): 423-46.
171. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews, xvi.
172. Lucy S. Dawidowicz, What Is the Use of Jewish History? (New York: Schoken Books, 1980), 176.
173. For a recent example, see United States Mission to the United Nations, "Statement by Ambassador John R. Bolton, U.S. Permanent Representative to the UN, on the Holocaust Resolution, in the General Assembly," 31 October 2005, http://www.un.int/usa/05192.htm.
174. Rusk, As I Saw It, 14
175. Michael Lind, "Israel Is Not America's Greatest Ally," Newsweek, 8 April 2002
176. Michael Lind, "The Israel Lobby,"Prospect, April 2002
177. Fareed Zakaria, "Secretary of State Sharon," Newsweek, 15 April 2002
178. and Aaron David Miller, "Israel's Lawyer," The Washington Post, 23 May 2005.
179. Gerald R. Ford, A Time to Heal: The Autobiography of Gerald R. Ford (New York: Harper and Row, 1983), 245.
180. For another controversial effort to reconcile America's commitment to Israel with U.S. national interests during the first Bush administration, see James A. Baker, III, with Thomas M. Defrank, The Politics of Diplomacy: Revolution, War, and Peace, 1989-1992 (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1995), 115-32, 443-69, 540-57.
181. Neil MacFarquhar, "Egypt Assails the Lumping of U.S. War With Israel's," The New York Times, 1 May 2002
182. and Dafna Linzer, "Polls Show Growing Arab Rancor at U.S.," The Washington Post, 23 July 2004.
183. For evidence that some U.S. policymakers recognize this, see Department of Defense, Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on Strategic Communication (Washington, DC, September 2004)
184. and Advisory Group on Public Diplomacy for the Arab and Muslim World, Changing Minds, Winning Peace: A New Strategic Direction for U.S. Public Diplomacy in the Arab and Muslim World (Washington, DC: U.S. House of Representatives, 1 October 2003).
185. Truman, Memoirs, 158.
186. Personal conversation with former senior official in the George H.W. Bush Administration College Station, Texas, 11 February 2005.
187. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Waging Peace, 1956-1961 (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965), 186.
188. For more recent examples, see B. Drummond Ayers, Jr., "Mideast Hot Potatoes Fly in New Hampshire," The New York Times, 16 December 2001
189. and Jeffrey Goldberg, "Real Insiders: A Pro-Israel Lobby and an F.B.I. Sting," The New Yorker, 4 July 2005, 34-41.
190. Ford, A Time to Heal, 286.
191. Richard Cohen, "Who's Anti-Semitic?" The Washington Post, 20 April 2002.
192. Efraim Sicher, "The Future of the Past: Countermemory and Postmemory in Contemporary American Post-Holocaust Narrative," History and Memory 12, no. 2 (2000): 59.
193. Novick, Holocaust in American Life, 281.
194. Leon Wieseltier, "Hitler is Dead: Against Ethnic Panic," The New Republic, 27 May 2002, http://www.tnr.com/ doc.hhtml?i=20020527&s=wieseltier052702.
195. For a revealingly intemperate response, see Ruth R. Wisse, "On Ignoring Anti-Semitism," Commentary (October 2002): 26-33.
196. J.J. Goldberg, "A Constituency Ready for Peace," The New York Times, 29 November 2001.
197. Ford, A Time to Heal, 287.
198. For a more recent example, see Jacob Heilbrunn, "The Arabist: Dennis Ross and the Endless Peace Process," The New Republic, 8 July 1996, 18-20. This attack on Ross is outlandish inasmuch as he is a staunch supporter of Israel.
199. See Michael C. Desch, "The Peace That Failed," The American Conservative, 8 November 2004, 27-30.
200. Tony Judt, "America and the War," The New York Review of Books, 15 November 2001, http://www.nybooks.com/articles/14760.
201. Alan J. Kuperman, "Tragic Challenges and the Moral Hazard of Humanitarian Intervention: How and Why Ethnic Groups Provoke Genocidal Retaliation," (doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, August 2002).
202. Paul Lewis, "Downside of Doing Good: Disaster Relief Can Harm," The New York Times, 27 February 1999
203. and Alan Kuperman, "False Hope Abroad; Promises to Intervene Often Bring Bloodshed," The Washington Post, 14 June 1998.
204. Doyle McManus, "Bosnia Chief Satisfied After Clinton Talk," Los Angeles Times, 10 September 1993
205. and George Kenney, "The Bosnian Calculation," The New York Times Sunday Magazine, 23 April 1995.
206. Alan J. Kuperman, "Support of Rebels Was a Mistake," Los Angeles Times, 11 April 1999
207. and Kelly M. Greenhill, "People Pressure: The Use of Refugees as Political and Military Weapons in the Kosovo Conflict" in Yugoslavia Unraveled: Sovereignty, Self-Determination, and Intervention, ed. George C. Thomas (London: Frank Cass, forthcoming).
208. International Commission on the Balkans, The Balkans in Europe's Future (April 2005), 8.
209. Also see Gary T. Dempsey with Roger W. Fontaine, Fool's Errands: America's Recent Encounters With Nation Building (Washington, DC: The CATO Institute, 2001).
210. Novick, Holocaust in American Life, 257
211. and David Stannard, "Uniqueness as Denial: The Politics of Genocide Scholarship" in Is the Holocaust Unique? Perspectives on Comparative Genocide, 2nd ed., ed. Alan S. Rosenbaum (Boulder: Westview, 2001), 274.
212. Samantha Power, "Bystanders to Genocide," The Atlantic Monthly 288, no. 2, September 2001, 84-108.
213. Radin, "Role of Rights Debated in US Kosovo Action."
214. Mark Bowden, Black Hawk Down: A Story of Modern War (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1999).
215. Cohen, "It's Not a Holocaust."
216. Also see Robert D. Kaplan, "Why the Balkans Demand Amorality," The Washington Post, 28 February 1999.
217. Alan Kuperman, "Rwanda in Retrospect," Foreign Affairs 79, no. 1 (January/February 2000): 94-118.
218. Also see Alan Kuperman, The Limits of Humanitarian Intervention: Genocide in Rwanda (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution Press, 2001).
219. Glenn Kessler and Colum Lynch, "U.S. Calls Killings in Sudan Genocide," The Washington Post, 4 September 2004.
220. On this, see Lynn E. Davis, et al., Stretched Thin: Army Forces for Sustained Operations (Washington, DC: RAND Corporation, 2005).
221. Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace, 130-31, 307
222. and Michael C. Desch, "Liberals, Neocons, and Realcons," Orbis 45, no. 4 (Fall 2001): 520-22, 526-31.
223. E.J. Dione, "Not Munich But the Holocaust; The Hook That Draws in the Progressives," The Washington Post, 30 April 1999
224. and Paul Berman, "The Passion of Joschka Fischer: From the Radicalism of the '60s to the Interventionism of the '90s," The New Republic, 27 August-3 September 2001, 36-59.
225. Michael Massing, "Hawks at the Washington Post," The Nation, 11 November 2002, 20-23
226. Massing, "The Moral Quandary: Anti-Imperialism vs. Humanitarianism," The Nation, 6 January 2003, 17-22
227. and Marc Sandalow, "Stance on War Splits Two Top Democrats," San Francisco Chronicle, 16 March 2003.
228. Leon Wieseltier, "Against Innocence: A Liberal's War, Too," The New Republic, 3 March 2003, 28.
229. Also see Adrian Kreye, "American Liberals Torn," World Press Review 50, no. 3, March 2003, http:// worldpress.org/ article_model.cfm?article_id=1048&dont=yes.
230. Stephen Holmes, "Looking Away," London Review of Books 24, no. 22, 14 November 2002, http://www.lrb.co.uk/v24/n22/print/holm01_.html.
231. "Humanitarianism, the Human Rights Movement, and U.S. Foreign Policy: Conversation With Author David Rieff," Conversations With History, http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people3/Rieff/.
232. Of course, the Israel lobby also justifies a close relationship between the two countries on additional grounds such as common democracy and convergence of strategic interests. For a critique of these rationales, see John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt, "Israel and American Foreign Policy," London Review of Books (forthcoming). "The Israel Lobby," London Review of Books 28, no. 6, 23 March 2006, http://www.lrb.co.uklu28/n06/mear01_.html
233. Carter, The Blood of Abraham, 54-55.
234. Also see "The Power 25: Top Lobbying Groups," http://www.fortune.com/fortune/washingtonpower25. Fortune ranks AIPAC as the 4th most powerful lobby in Washington, DC.
235. Novick, Holocaust in American Life, 207.
236. Alison Mitchell, "Israel Winning Broad Support from U.S. Right," The New York Times, 21 April 2002.
237. For example, see William J. Bennett, "Where Bush Rewards Terror," The Washington Post, 20 March 2002.
238. Segev, The Seventh Million, 472.
239. Martin Gilbert, Israel: A History (New York: William Morrow, 1998), 375, 448
240. and Jacqueline Rose, The Question of Zion (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 118.
241. Maier, "A Surfeit of Memory?" 146.
242. Wheatcroft, Controversy of Zion, 188.
243. Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace, 287
244. and Henry Kissinger, "Bosnia: My Appeal to the President," The Daily Telegraph, 20 May 20 1993.
245. Cohen, "It's Not a Holocaust."
246. Henry Siegman, "The Holocaust Analogy is Too True: A Muslim People Are Targeted for Extinction, and the West Turns Away," Los Angles Times, 11 July 1993.
247. Ben Macintyre, "Hawkish Albright Driven by Family History," The Times, 6 April 1999.
248. Paul Wolfowitz, quoted in Eric Schmitt, "For Wolfowitz, a Busy Life Being a Lightening Rod for Bush," The New York Times, 22 April 2002, http://www.nytimes.com/2002/04/22/international/22WOLF.html.
249. Miles Lerman, quoted in Matt Marshall and Norman Kempster, "'Never Again' But How to Stop Atrocities?" Los Angeles Times, 3 January 1993.
250. Abraham Foxman, quoted in Geraldine Baum, "Noting that 'Silence Breeds Tragedy;' Jewish Groups Back Aid to Ethnic Albanians," The New York Times, 9 April 1999.
251. Michael Remez, "For Some, Kosovo Brings Holocaust to Mind," Hartford Courant, 23 March 1999.
252. Howard Metzenbaum, quoted in Helen Dewar, "Congress Torn Over Balkan Role," The Washington Post, 29 April 1993.
253. Emmerich de Vattel, The Law of Nations on Principles on the Law of Nature Applied to the Conduct and Affairs of Nations and Sovereigns (Northampton, MA: Simeon Butler, 1820), Preliminaries, 9§, http://www.constitution.org/vattel/vattel.htm.
254. John Stuart Mill, "A Few Words on Non-intervention" in Dissertation, and Discussions: Political Philosophical and Historical, vol. 3 (London: Longmans, Green, Reader and Dyer, 1867), 21.
255. John Rawls, "The Law of Peoples," Critical Inquiry 20 (Autumn 1993): 42.
256. Richard J. Goldstone, "From the Holocaust: Some Legal and Moral Implications," in Is the Holocaust Unique? 43.
257. For a useful history of the Genocide Convention, see Power, "A Problem from Hell," 31-85.
258. For a copy of the Charter, see http://www.yale.edu/cgp/genocide.html (emphasis added).
259. Goldstone, "From the Holocaust," 44 (emphasis added).
260. Also see Scott Peterson, "An Age of Apologies," The Christian Science Monitor, 24 March 2000.
261. Max Frankel, "Turning Away From the Holocaust," The New York Times, 14 November 2001.
262. Bernstein, "Holocaust Parallel to Bosnia Horrors," 7.
263. Scott Veale, "History 101: Snoop Doggy Roosevelt," Week in Review, The New York Times, 2 July 2000.
264. Novick, Holocaust in American Life, 257-61.