Use of advanced neuroimaging techniques in the evaluation of pediatric traumatic brain injury

Developmental Neuroscience

Volumn 28, Issue 4-5, 2006, Pages 309-326

  Ashwal, Stephen ^a   Holshouser, Barbara A ^a   Tong, Karen A ^a  

^a LOMA LINDA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Diffusion tensor imaging; Diffusion weighted imaging; Neuroimaging techniques; Traumatic brain injury

Indexed keywords

WATER;

ANISOTROPY; AXONAL INJURY; BRAIN HEMORRHAGE; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; BRAIN REGION; DIFFUSION TENSOR IMAGING; DIFFUSION WEIGHTED IMAGING; EVALUATION; HUMAN; METABOLITE; METHODOLOGY; MOLECULE; NEUROCHEMISTRY; NEUROIMAGING; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PATIENT CARE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TECHNIQUE; TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY; WHITE MATTER;

BODY WATER; BRAIN; BRAIN INJURIES; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; CHILD; DIFFUSION MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY; NEUROLOGY; PEDIATRICS; PREDICTIVE VALUE OF TESTS; PROGNOSIS;

EID: 33748148318     PISSN: 03785866     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1159/000094157     Document Type: Review

References (101)

1. Adams JH, Doyle D, Ford I, Gennarelli TA, Graham DI, McLellan DR (1989): Diffuse axonal injury in head injury: definition, diagnosis and grading. Histopathology 15:49-59.
2. Adams JH, Graham DI, Murray LS, Scott G (1982): Diffuse axonal injury due to nonmissile head injury in humans: an analysis of 45 cases. Ann Neurol 12:557-563.
3. Albensi BC, Knoblach SM, Chew BG, O'Reilly MP, Faden AI, Pekar JJ (2000): Diffusion and high resolution MRI of traumatic brain injury in rats: time course and correlation with histology. Exp Neurol 162:61-72.
4. Alessandri B, Samsam R, Corwin F, Fatouros P, Young HF, Bucclock RM (2000): Acute and late changes in N-acetyl-aspartate following diffuse axonal injury in rats: an MRI spectroscopy and microdialysis study. Neurol Res 22:705-712.
5. Arfanakis K, Haughton VM, Carew JD, Rogers BP, Dempsey RJ, Meyerand ME (2002): Diffusion tensor MR imaging in diffuse axonal injury. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 23:794-802.
6. Ashwal S, Babikian T, Nichols J, Freier MC, Tong KA, Holshouser BA (in press): Susceptibility-weighted imaging and proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in assessment of outcome after pediatric traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil.
7. Ashwal S, Holshouser BA, Shu SK, Simmons PL, Perkin RM, Tomasi LG, Knierim DS, Sheridan C, Craig K, Andrews GH, Hinshaw DB (2000): Predictive value of proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in pediatric closed head injury. Pediatr Neurol 23:114-125.
8. Ashwal S, Holshouser B, Tong K, Serna T, Osterdock R, Gross M, Kido D (2004a): Proton spectroscopy detected myoinositol in children with traumatic brain injury. Pediatr Res 56:630-638.
9. Ashwal S, Holshouser BA, Tong K, Serna T, Osterdock R, Gross M, Kido D (2004b): Proton MR spectroscopy detected glutamate/glutamine is increased in children with traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 21:1539-1552.
10. 2-weighted MRI of closed-head injury in rats: a time course study and correlation with histology. Magn Reson Imaging 15:77-85.
11. Barker PB, Soher BJ, Blackband SJ, Chatham JC, Mathews VP, Bryan RN (1993): Quantitation of proton NMR spectra of the human brain using tissue water as an internal concentration reference. NMR Biomed 6:89-94.
12. Barzo P, Marmarou A, Fatouros P, Hayasaki K, Corwin F (1997): Contribution of vasogenic and cellular edema to traumatic brain swelling measured by diffusion-weighted imaging. J Neurosurg 87:900-907.
13. Beaulieu C, D'arcueil H, Hedehus M, de Crepigny A, Kastrup A, Moseley ME (1999): Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging: theory and potential applications to child neurology. Semin Pediatr 6:87-100.
14. Biousse V, Suh DY, Newman NJ, Davis PC, Mapstone T, Lambert SR (2002): Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in shaken baby syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 133:249-255.
15. Blackman JA, Rice SA, Matsumoto JA, Conaway MR, Elgin KM, Patrick PD, Farrell WJ, Allaire JH, Wilson CL (2003): Brain imaging as a predictor of early functional outcome following traumatic brain injury in children, adolescents, and young adults. J Head Trauma Rehabil 18:493-503.
16. Brenner T, Freier MC, Holshouser BA, Burley T, Ashwal S (2003): Predicting neuropsychologic outcome after traumatic brain injury in children. Pediatr Neurol 28:104-114.
17. Bullock R, Zauner A, Woodward JJ, Myseros J, Choi SC, Ward JD, Marmaro A, Young HF (1998): Factors affecting excitatory amino acid release following severe head injury. J Neurosurg 89:507-518.
18. Bydder GM, Rutherford MA, Cowan FM (2001): Diffusion-weighted imaging in neonates. Childs Nerv Syst 17:190-194.
19. Cady EB, Penrice J, Amess PN, Lorek A, Wylezinska M, Aldridge RF, Franconi F, Wyatt JS, Reynolds EO (1996): Lactate, N-acetylaspartate, choline and creatine concentrations and spin-spin relation in thalamic and occipitoparietal regions of developing human brain. Magn Reson Med 36:878-886.
20. Cecil KM, Hills EC, Sandel ME, Smith DH, McIntosh TK, Mannon LJ, Sinson GP, Bagley LJ, Grossman RI, Lenkinski RE (1998): Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy for detection of axonal injury in the splenium of the corpus callosum of brain-injured patients. J Neurosurg 88:795-801.
21. Chan YL, Chu WC, Wong GW, Yeung DK (2003): Diffusion-weighted MRI in shaken baby syndrome. Pediatr Radiol 33:574-547.
22. Chiaretti A, Visocchi M, Viola L, De Benedictis R, Langer A, Tortorolo L, Piastra M, Polidori G (1998): Diffuse axonal lesions in childhood. Pediatr Med Chir 20:393-397.
23. Cordobes F, Lobato RD, Rivas JJ, Cabrera A, Sarabia M, Castro S, Cisneros C, Torres ID, Lamas E (1986): Post-traumatic diffuse axonal brain injury. Analysis of 78 patients studied with computed tomography. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 81:27-35.
24. Danielsen ER, Michaelis T, Ross BD (1995): Three methods of calibration in quantitative proton MR spectroscopy. J Magn Reson B 106:287-291.
25. Danielsen ER, Ross B (1999): Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Diagnosis of Neurological Diseases. New York, Marcel Dekker, p 349.
26. Duhaime AC, Hunter JV, Grate LL, Kim A, Golden J, Demidenko E, Harris C (2003): Magnetic resonance imaging studies of age-dependent responses to scaled focal brain injury in the piglet. J Neurosurg 99:542-548.
27. Field AS, Hasan K, Jellison BJ, Arfanakis K, Alexander AL (2003): Diffusion tensor imaging in an infant with traumatic brain swelling. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 24:1461-1464.
28. Fiser DH, Long N, Roverson P, Hefley G, Zolten K, Brodie-Fowler M (2000): Relationship of pediatric overall performance category and pediatric cerebral performance category scores at pediatric intensive care unit discharge with outcome measures collected at hospital discharge and 1- and 6-month follow-up assessment. Crit Care Med 28:216-220.
29. Frahm J, Bruhn H, Gyngell ML, Merboldt KD, Hanicke W, Sauter R (1989): Localized NMR spectroscopy in different regions of the human brain in vivo: relaxation times and concentration of cerebral metabolites. Magn Reson Med 11:47-63.
30. Garnett MR, Blamire AM, Corkill RG, Cadoux-Hudson TA, Rajagopalan B, Stylet P (2000): Early proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in normal-appearing brain correlates with outcome in patients following traumatic brain injury. Brain 123:2046-2054.
31. Garnett MR, Corkill RG, Blamire AM, Rajagopalan B, Manners DN, Young JD, Styles P, Cadoux-Hudson TA (2001): Altered cellular metabolism following traumatic brain injury: a magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. J Neurotrauma 18:231-240.
32. Geddes JF, Hackshaw AK, Vowles GH, Nickols CD, Whitwell HL (2001a): Neuropathology of inflicted head injury in children. 1. Pattern of brain damage. Brain 124:1290-1298.
33. Geddes JF, Vowles GH, Hackshaw AK, Nickols CD, Scott IS, Whitwell HL (2001): Neuropathology of inflicted head injury in children. 2. Microscopic brain injury in infants. Brain 124:1299-1306.
34. Gentry LR, Godersky JC, Thompson B (1988): MR imaging of head trauma: review of the distribution and radiopathologic features of traumatic lesions. AJR Am J Roentgenol 150:663-672.
35. Gleckman AM, Bell MD, Evans RJ, Smith TW (1999): Diffuse axonal injury in infants with nonaccidental craniocerebral trauma: enhanced detection by beta-amyloid precursor protein immunohistochemical staining. Arch Pathol Lab Med 123:146-151.
36. Gorrie C, Oakes S, Duflou J, Blumbergs P, Waite PM (2002): Axonal injury in children after motor vehicle crashes: extent, distribution, and size of axonal swellings using beta-APP immunohistochemistry. J Neurotrauma 19:1171-1182.
37. Govindaraju V, Gauger GE, Manley GT, Ebel A, Meeker M, Maudsley AA (2004): Volumetric proton spectroscopic imaging of mild traumatic brain injury. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 25:730-737.
38. Grados MA, Slomine BS, Gerring JP, Vasa R, Bryan N, Denckla MB (2001): Depth of lesion model in children and adolescents with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury: use of SPGR MRI to predict severity and outcome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 70:350-358.
39. Graham DI, McIntosh TK, Maxwell WL, Nicoll JA (2000): Recent advances in neurotrauma. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 59:641-651.
40. Haacke EM, Cheng Nym, House MJ, Liu Q, Neelavalli J, Ogg RJ, Khan A, Ayaz M, Kirsch W, Obenaus A (2005): Imaging iron stores in the brain using magnetic resonance imaging. Magn Reson Imaging 23:1-25.
41. Hanstock C, Faden A, Bendall M, Vink R (1994): Diffusion-weighted imaging differentiates ischemic tissue from traumatized tissue. Stroke 25:843-848.
42. Hergan K, Schaefer PW, Sorensen AG, Gonzalez RG, Huisman TAGM (2002): Diffusion-weighted MRI in diffuse axonal injury of the brain. Eur Radiol 12:2536-2541.
43. Holshouser BA, Ashwal S, Luh GY, Shu S, Kahlon S, Auld KL, Tomasi LG, Perkin RM, Hinshaw DB Jr (1997): Proton MR spectroscopy after acute central nervous system injury: outcome prediction in neonates, infants, and children. Radiology 202:487-496.
44. Holshouser BA, Ashwal S, Tong KA (2005): Proton MR spectroscopic imaging depicts diffuse axonal injury in children with traumatic brain injury. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 26:1276-1285.
45. Horska A, Kaufmann W, Brant LJ, Naidu S, Harris JC, Barker PB (2002): In vivo quantitative proton MRSI study of brain development from childhood to adolescence. J Magn Reson Imaging 15:137-143.
46. Huisman TA (2003): Diffusion-weighted imaging: basic concepts and application in cerebral stroke and head trauma. Eur Radiol 13:2283-2297.
47. Huisman TA, Schwamm LH, Schaefer PW, Koroshetz WJ, Shetty-Alva N, Ozsunar Y, Wu O, Sorensen AG (2004): Diffusion tensor imaging as potential biomarker of white matter injury in diffuse axonal injury. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 25:370-376.
48. Huisman TA, Sorensen AG, Hergan K, Gonzalez RG, Schaefer PW (2003): Diffusion-weighted imaging for the evaluation of diffuse axonal injury in closed head injury. J Comput Assist Tomogr 27:5-11.
49. Hunter JV, Thornton RJ, Wang ZJ, Levin HS, Robertson G, Brooks WM, Swank PR (2005): Late proton MR spectroscopy in children after traumatic brain injury: correlation with cognitive outcomes. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 26:482-488.
50. Huppi PS (2001): MR imaging and spectroscopy of brain development. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 9:1-17.
51. Huppi PS, Maier SE, Peled S, Zientara GP, Barnes PD, Jolesz FA (1998): Microstructural development of human newborn cerebral white matter assessed in vivo by diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging. Pediatr Res 44:584-590.
52. Ito J, Marmarou A, Barzo P, Fatouros P, Corwin F (1996): Characterization of edema by diffusion-weighted imaging in experimental traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg 84:97-103.
53. Jones DK, Dardis R, Ervine M, Horsfield MA, Jeffree M, Simmons A, Jorosz J, Strong AJ (2000): Cluster analysis of diffusion tensor magnetic resonance images in human head injury. Neurosurgery 47:306-317.
54. Klingberg T, Vaidya CJ, Gabrieli JD, Moseley ME, Hedehus M (1999): Myelination and organization of the frontal white matter in children: a diffusion tensor MRI study. Neuroreport 10:2817-2821.
55. Kreis R, Ernst T, Ross BD (1993): Development of the human brain: in vivo quantification of metabolite and water content with proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Magn Reson Med 30:424-437.
56. 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Magn Reson Med 48:949-958.
57. Levin HS, Amparo E, Eisenberg HM, Williams DH, High WM Jr, McArdle CB, Weiner RL (1987): Magnetic resonance imaging and computerized tomography in relation to the neurobehavioral sequelae of mild and moderate head injuries. J Neurosurg 66:706-713.
58. Liu AY, Maldjian JA, Bagley LJ, Sinson GP, Grossman RI (1999): Traumatic brain injury: diffusion-weighted MR imaging findings. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 20:1636-1641.
59. Macmillan CS, Wild JM, Wardlaw JM, Andrews PJ, Marshall I, Easton VJ (2002): Traumatic brain injury and subarachnoid hemorrhage: in vivo occult pathology demonstrated by magnetic resonance spectroscopy may not be 'ischaemic'. A primary study and review of the literature. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 144:853-862; discussion 862.
60. McGraw P, Liang L, Provenzale JM (2002): Evaluation of normal age-related changes in anisotropy during infancy and childhood as shown by diffusion tensor imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol 179:1515-1522.
61. McKinstry RC, Miller JH, Snyder AZ, Mathur A, Schefft GL, Almli CR, Shimony JS, Shiran SSSI, Neil JJ (2002): A prospective, longitudinal diffusion tensor imaging study of brain injury in newborns. Neurology 59:824-833.
62. 1H-MRSI of cerebral gray and white matter. Magn Res Med 44:401-411.
63. Meythaler JM, Peduzzi JD, Eleftheriou E, Novack TA (2001): Current concepts: diffuse axonal injury-associated traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 82:1461-1471.
64. Miller SP, Vigneron DB, Henry RG, Bohland MA, Ceppi-Cozzio C, Hoffman C, Newton N, Partridge JC, Ferriero DM, Barkovich AJ (2002): Serial quantitative diffusion tensor MRI of the premature brain: development in newborns with and without injury. J Magn Reson Imaging 16:621-632.
65. Mittl RL, Grossman RI, Hiehle JF, Hurst RW, Kauder DR, Gennarelli TA, Alburger GW (1994): Prevalence of MR evidence of diffuse axonal injury in patients with mild head injury and normal head CT findings. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 15:1583-1589.
66. Morriss MC, Zimmerman RA, Bilaniuk LT, Hunter JV, Hasselgrove JC (1999): Changes in brain water diffusion during childhood. Neuroradiology 41:929-934.
67. Mukherjee P, McKinstry RC (2001): Reversible posterior leukoencephalopathy syndrome: evaluation with diffusion tensor MR imaging. Radiology 219:756-765.
68. Mukherjee P, Miller JH, Shimony JS, Conturo TE, Lee BC, Almli CR, McKinstry RC (2001): Normal brain maturation during childhood: developmental trends characterized with diffusion-tensor MR imaging. Radiology 221:349-358.
69. Mukherjee P, Miller JH, Shimony JS, Philip JV, Nehra D, Snyder AZ, Conturo TE, Neil JJ, McKinstry RC (2002): Diffusion-tensor MR imaging of gray and white matter development during normal human brain maturation. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 23:1445-1456.
70. Naganawa S, Sato C, Ishihra S, Kumada H, Ishigaki T, Miura S, Watanabe M, Maruyama K, Takizawa O (2004): Serial evaluation of diffusion tensor brain fiber tracking in a patient with severe diffuse axonal injury. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 25:1553-1536.
71. Neil JJ, Shiran SI, McKinstry RC, Schefft GL, Snyder AZ, Almli CR, Akbudak E, Aronovitz JA, Miller JP, Lee BC, Conturo TE (1998): Normal brain in human newborns: apparent diffusion coefficient and diffusion anisotropy measured by using diffusion tensor MR imaging. Radiology 209:57-66.
72. Orrison WW, Gentry LR, Stimac GK, Tarrel RM, Espinosa MC, Cobb LC (1994): Blinded comparison of cranial CT and MR in closed head injury evaluation. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 15:351-356.
73. Parizel PM, Ceulemans B, Laridon A, Ozsarlak O, Van Goethem JW, Jorens PG (2003): Cortical hypoxic-ischemic brain damage in shaken-baby (shaken impact) syndrome: value of diffusion-weighted MRI. Pediatr Radiol 33:868-871.
74. Pfefferbaum A, Sullivan EV, Hedehus M, Lim KO, Adalsteinsson E, Moseley M (2000): Age-related decline in brain white matter anisotropy measured with spatially corrected echo-planar diffusion tensor imaging. Magn Reson Med 44:259-268.
75. Pouwels PJ, Brockmann K, Kruise B, Wilken B, Wick M, Hanefeld F, Frahms J (1999): Regional age-dependence of human brain metabolites form infancy to adulthood as detected by quantitative localized proton MRS. Pediatr Res 46:474-485.
76. Prayer D, Prayer L (2003): Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging of cerebral white matter development. Eur J Radiol 45:235-243.
77. Provencher SW (1993): Estimation of metabolite concentrations from localized in vivo proton NMR spectra. Magn Reson Med 30:672-679.
78. Ptak T, Sheridan RL, Rhea JT, Gervasini AA, Yun JH, Curran MA, Borszuk P, Petrovick L, Novelline RA (2003): Cerebral fractional anisotropy score in trauma patients: a new indicator of white matter injury after trauma. AJR Am J Roentgenol 181:1401-1407.
79. Reichenbach JR, Venkatesan R, Schillinger DJ, Kido DK, Haacke EM (1997): Small vessels in the human brain: MR venography with deoxyhemoglobin as an intrinsic contrast agent. Radiology 204:272-277.
80. 1H MRS in acute traumatic brain injury. J Magn Reson Imaging 8:829-840.
81. Rugg-Gunn FJ, Symms MR, Barker GJ, Greenwood R, Duncan JS (2001): Diffusion imaging shows abnormalities after blunt head trauma when conventional magnetic resonance imaging is normal. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 70:530-533.
82. Schaefer PW, Grant PE, Gonzalez RG (2000): Diffusion-weighted MR imaging of the brain. Radiology 217:331-345.
83. Schaefer PW, Huisman TA, Sorensen AG, Gonzalez RG, Schwamm LH (2004): Diffusion-weighted MR imaging in closed head injury: high correlation with initial Glasgow coma scale score and score on modified Rankin scale at discharge. Radiology 233:58-66.
84. 2*-weighted gradient-echo imaging at 3 T. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 24: 1049-1056.
85. 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging. Magn Reson Med 45:899-907.
86. 1H-MR spectroscopic monitoring of posttraumatic metabolism following controlled cortical impact injury: pilot study. Acta Neurochir Suppl 76:3-7.
87. Sehgal V, Delproposto Z, Haacke EM, Tong KA, Wycliffe N, Kido DK, Xu Y, Neelavalli J, Haddar D, Reichenbach JR (2005): Clinical applications of neuroimaging with susceptibility-weighted imaging. J Magn Reson Imaging 22: 439-450.
88. Signoretti S, Marmarou A, Fatouros P, Hoyle R, Beaumont A, Sawauchi S, Bullock R, Young H (2002): Application of chemical shift imaging for measurement of NAA in head injured patients. Acta Neurochir Suppl 81:373-375.
89. Sinson G, Bagley LJ, Cecil KM, Torchia M, McGowan JC, Lenkinski RE, McIntosh TK, Grossman RI (2001): Magnetization transfer imaging and proton MR spectroscopy in the evaluation of axonal injury: correlation with clinical outcome after traumatic brain injury. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 22:143-151.
90. Soher BJ, Vermathen P, Schuff N, Weidermann D, Meyerhoff DJ, Weiner MW, Maudsley AA (2000): Short TE in vivo (1)H MR spectroscopic imaging at 1.5 T: acquisition and automated spectral analysis. Magn Reson Imaging 18:1159-1165.
91. Suh DY, Davis PC, Hopkins KL, Fajman NN, Mapstone TB (2001): Nonaccidental pediatric head injury: diffusion-weighted imaging findings. Neurosurgery 49:309-318.
92. Sundgren PC, Dong Q, Gomez-Hassan D, Mukherji SK, Maly P, Welsh R (2004): Diffusion tensor imaging of the brain: review of clinical applications. Neuroradiology 46:339-350.
93. Sykova E (2004): Extrasynaptic volume transmission and diffusion parameters of the extracellular space. Neuroscience 129:861-876.
94. Tong KA, Ashwal S, Holshouser BA, Nickerson JP, Wall CJ, Shutter LA, Osterdock RJ, Haacke EM, Kido D (2004): Diffuse axonal injury in children: clinical correlation with hemorrhagic lesions. Ann Neurol 56:36-50.
95. Tong KA, Ashwal S, Holshouser BA, Shutter LA, Herigault G, Haacke EM, Kido DK (2003): Hemorrhagic shearing lesions in children and adolescents with posttraumatic diffuse axonal injury: improved detection and initial results. Radiology 227:332-339.
96. van der Toorn A, Sykova E, Dijkhuizen RM, Vorisek I, Vargova L, Skobisova E, van Lookeren Campagne M, Reese T, Nicolay K (1996): Dynamic changes in water ADC, energy metabolism, extracellular space volume, and tortuosity in neonatal rat brain during global ischemia. Magn Reson Med 36:52-60.
97. Vigneron DB, Barkovich AJ, Noworolski SM, von dem Bussche M, Henry RG, Lu Y, Partridge JC, Gregory G, Ferriero DM (2001): Three-dimensional proton MR spectroscopic imaging of premature and term neonates. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 22:1424-1433.
98. Vowles GH, Scholtz CL, Cameron JM: Diffuse axonal injury in early infancy. J Clin Pathol 1987;40:185-189.
99. 2*-weighted gradient-echo imaging. J Trauma 49:272-277.
100. Yuan X, Prough D, Smith T, DeWitt D (1988): The effects of traumatic brain injury in regional cerebral blood flow in rats. J Neurotrauma 5:289-301.
101. Zhang H, Zhang X, Zhang T, Chen L (2001): Excitatory amino acids in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with acute head injuries. Clin Chem 47:1458-1462.