Ethnicity and body dissatisfaction among women in the United States: A meta-analysis

Psychological Bulletin

Volumn 132, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 622-640

  Grabe, Shelly ^a   Hyde, Janet Shibley ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

Author keywords

Body image; Ethnic identity; Human females; Meta analysis; Racial and ethnic differences

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BODY IMAGE; CLINICAL TRIAL; ETHNIC GROUP; ETHNOLOGY; FEMALE; HUMAN; META ANALYSIS; SOMATOFORM DISORDER; STATISTICS; UNITED STATES;

BODY IMAGE; ETHNIC GROUPS; FEMALE; HUMANS; SOMATOFORM DISORDERS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 33747037588     PISSN: 00332909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.132.4.622     Document Type: Article

References (170)

1. Abood, D. A. (1997). Race and the role of weight, weight change, and body dissatisfaction in eating disorders. American Journal of Health Behavior, 21, 21-25.
2. Abrams, K. K., Allen, L., & Gray, L. J. (1993). Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors, psychological adjustment, and ethnic identity: A comparison of Black and White female college students. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 14, 49-57.
3. Ackard, D. M., Croll, J. K., & Kearney-Cooke, A. (2002). Dieting frequency among college females: Association with disordered eating, body image and related psychological problems. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 52, 129-136.
4. Adams, K., Sargent, R. G., Thomson, S. H., Richter, D., Corwin, S. J., & Rogan, T. J. (2000). A study of body weight concerns and weight control practices of 4th and 7th grade adolescents. Ethnicity & Health, 5, 79-94.
5. Akan, G. E., & Grilo, C. M. (1995). Socioculturel influence in eating attitudes and behaviors, body image, and psychological functioning: A comparison of African-American, Asian-American, and Caucasian college women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 18, 181-187.
6. Allan, J. D., Mayo, K., & Michel, Y. (1993). Body size values of White and Black women. Research in Nursing and Health, 16, 323-333.
7. Altabe, M. (1998). Ethnicity and body image: Quantitative and qualitative analysis. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 23, 153-159.
8. Altabe, M., & O'Garo, K. N. (2002). Hispanic body images. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 250-256). New York: Guilford Press.
9. Anderson, M. (1993). Correlates of body image in university women. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas.
10. Andrews, J. A., Lewinsohn, P. M., Hops, H., & Roberts, R. E. (1993). Psychometric properties of scales for the measurement of psychosocial variables associated with depression in adolescence. Psychological Reports, 73, 1019-1046.
11. Arkoff, A. U., & Weaver, H. B. (1966). Body image and body dissatisfaction in Japanese Americans. Journal of Social Psychology, 68, 323-330.
12. Arriaza, C. A., & Mann, T. (2001). Ethnic differences in eating disorder symptoms among college students: The confounding role of body mass index. Journal, of American College Health, 49, 309-315.
13. Avila, D. L., & Avila, A. L. (1995). Mexican-Americans. In N. A. Vacc & S. B. DeVaney (Eds.), Experiencing and counseling multicultural and diverse populations (3rd ed., pp. 119-146). Philadelphia: Accelerated Development.
14. Bagley, C. A., Character, C. D., & Shelton, L. (2003). Eating disorders among urban and rural African American and European American women. Women & Therapy, 26, 59-79.
15. Barnett, H. L., Keel, P. K., & Conoscenti, L. M. (2001). Body type preferences in Asian and Caucasian college students. Sex Roles, 45, 867-878.
16. Barry, D. T., & Grilo, C. M. (2002). Eating and body image disturbances in adolescent psychiatric inpatients: Gender and ethnicity patterns. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 32, 335-343.
17. Bay-Cheng, L. Y., Zucker, A. N., Stewart, A. J., & Pomerlau, C. S. (2002). Linking femininity, weight concern, and mental health among Latina, Black, and White women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 36-45.
18. Berscheid, E., Walster, E., & Bohrnstedt, G. (1973, November). The happy American body: A survey report. Psychology Today, 7(6), 119-131.
19. Bissell, K. (2004). Must-see TV or ESPN: Entertainment and sports media exposure and body-image distortion in college women. Journal of Communication, 54, 5-21.
20. Bond, S., & Cash, T. F. (1992). Black beauty: Skin color and body images among African-American college women. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 874-888.
21. Botta, R. A. (2000). The mirror of television: A comparison of Black and White adolescents' body image. Journal of Communication, 50, 144-159.
22. Bromley, C. E. (2000). Body weight, life satisfaction, and psychological distress in adolescent males and females of different racial groups. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Fordham University.
23. Bross, A. L. (2002). Determining racial differences in the prediction of college women's body dissatisfaction: An examination of media influences, thin-ideal internalization, and social comparison. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo.
24. Brown, K. M., Schreiber, G. B., McMahon, R. P., Crawford, P., & Ghee, K. L. (1995). Maternal influences on body satisfaction in Black and White girls aged 9 and 10: The NHLBI Growth and Health Study (NGHS). Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 17, 213-220.
25. Brown, T. A., Cash, T. F., & Mikulka, P. J. (1990). Attitudinal body image assessment: Factor analysis of the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire. Unpublished manuscript.
26. Brownlow, B. S. (1998). The relationship between objectification, body image disturbances, and disordered eating: Investigating race, socio-economic status, acculturation and self-objectification as mediators. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Duke University.
27. Cachelin, F. M., Rebeck, R. M., Chung, G. H., & Pelayo, E. (2002). Does ethnicity influence body size preference? A comparison of body image and body size. Obesity Research, 10, 158-166.
28. Cachelin, F. M., Striegel-Moore, R. H., & Elder, K. A. (1998). Realistic weight perception and body size assessment in a racially diverse community sample of dieters. Obesity Research, 6, 62-68.
29. Caldwell, M. B., Brownell, K. D., & Wilfley, D. E. (1997). Relationship of weight, body dissatisfaction, and self-esteem in African American and White female dieters. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 22, 127-130.
30. Candy, C. M., & Fee, V. E. (1998). Reliability and concurrent validity of the Kids' Eating Disorders Survey (KEDS) body images silhouettes with preadolescent girls. Eating Disorders, 6, 297-308.
31. Cash, T. F., & Henry, P. E. (1995). Women's body images: The results of a national survey in the U.S.A. Sex Roles, 33, 19-28.
32. Cash, T. F., Lewis, R. J., & Keeton, P. (1987, March). Development and validation of the Body-Image Automatic Thoughts Questionniaire: A measure of body-related cognitions. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, Atlanta, GA.
33. Cash, T. F., Melnyk, S. E., & Hrabosky, J. I. (2004). The assessment of body image investment: An extensive revision of the Appearance Schemas Inventory. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 35, 305-316.
34. Cash, T. F., Morrow, J. A., Hrabosky, J. I., & Perry, A. A. (2004). How has body image changed? A cross-sectional investigation of college women and men from 1983-2001. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 1081-1089.
35. Cash, T. F., & Pruzinsky, T. (2002). Future challenges for body image theory, research, and clinical practice. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 509-516). New York: Guilford Press.
36. Cash, T. F., & Szymanski, M. L. (1995). The development and validation of the Body-Image Ideals Questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 64, 466-477.
37. Cash, T. F., Winstead, B. A., & Janda, L. H. (1986, April). The great American shape-up. Psychology Today, 20(4), 30-37.
38. Cashel, M. L., Cunningham, D., Landeros, C., Cokley, K. O., & Muhammad, G. (2003). Socioculturel attitudes and symptoms of bulimia: Evaluating the SATAQ with diverse college groups. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50, 287-296.
39. Casper, R. C., & Offer, D. (1990). Weight and dieting concerns in adolescents: Fashion or symptom? Pediatrics, 86, 384-390.
40. Chandler, S. B., Abood, D. A., Lee, D. T., Cleveland, M. Z., & Daly, J. A. (1994). Pathogenic eating attitudes and behaviors and body dissatisfaction differences among Black and White college students. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment & Prevention, 2, 319-328.
41. Cini, L. A. (2000). The role of acculturation in disordered eating attitudes, behaviors, and body image. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, St. John's University.
42. Cohen, J. (1969). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (1st ed.), New York: Academic Press.
43. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
44. Collins, P. H. (1990). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. New York: Routledge.
45. Cooper, P. J., Taylor, M. J., Cooper, Z., & Fairburn, C. G. (1987). The development and validation of the Body Shape Questionnaire, International Journal of Eating Disorders, 6, 485-494.
46. Crago, M., & Shisslak, C. M. (2003). Ethnic differences in dieting, binge eating, and purging behaviors among American females: A review. Eating Disorders, 11, 289-304.
47. Crowley, J. J. (1999). Media influence and the social self: The relation of other awareness to body image and eating pathology. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Davis.
48. Dacosta, K. O., & Wilson, J. F. (1996). Food preferences and eating attitudes in three generations of Black and White women. Appetite, 27, 183-191.
49. Dawson, D. (1988). Ethnic differences in female overweight: Data from the 1985 National Health Interview Survey. American Journal of Public Health, 78, 1326-1329.
50. Demarest, J., & Allen, R. (2000). Body image: Gender, ethnic, and age differences. Journal of Social Psychology, 140, 465-472.
51. DiGioacchino, R. F., Sargent, R. G., & Topping, M. (2001). Body dissatisfaction among White and African American male and female college students. Eating Behaviors, 2, 39-50.
52. Douglas, L. A. (1992). The impact of racial identification and gender identity on body distortion and body dissatisfaction. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Long Island University. Brooklyn Campus.
53. Dounchis, J. Z., Hayden, H. A., & Wilfley, D. E. (2001). Obesity, body image, and eating disorders in ethnically diverse children and adolescents. In J. Kevin Thompson & L. Smolak (Eds.), Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth: Assessment, prevention, and treatment (pp. 67-98). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
54. Duncan, G. E., Anton, S. D., Newton, R. L., & Perri, M. G. (2003). Comparison of perceived health to physiological measures of health in Black and White women. Preventive Medicine: An International Journal Devoted to Practice & Theory, 36, 624-628.
55. Edwards-Hewitt, T., & Gray, J. J. (1993). The prevalence of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in Black-American and White-American college women: Ethnic, regional, class, and media differences. European Eating Disorders Review, 1, 41-54.
56. Eitel, B. J. (2003). Body image satisfaction, appearance importance, and self-esteem: A comparison of Caucasian and African-American women across the adult lifespan. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Texas Women's University.
57. Esteban, C. M. (2003). The effects of media images on women's body esteem across ethnicity. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Alliant International University.
58. Evans, P. C., & McConnell, A. R. (2003). Do racial minorities respond in the same way to mainstream beauty standards? Social comparison processes in Asian, Black, and White women. Self & Identify, 2, 153-167.
59. Feather, B. L., Herr, D. G., & Ford, S. (1997). Black and White female athletes' perception of their bodies and garment fit. Clothing & Textiles Research Journal, 15, 125-128.
60. Feingold, A., & Mazzella, R. (1998). Gender differences in body image are increasing. Psychological Science, 9, 190-195.
61. Franko, D. L., & Herrera, I. (1997). Body image differences in Guatemalan-American and White college women. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment & Prevention, 5, 119-127.
62. Franzoi, S. L., & Chang, Z. (2002). The body esteem of Hmong and Caucasian adults. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 89-91.
63. Franzoi, S. L., & Shields, S. A. (1984). The Body-Esteem Scale: Multidimensional structure and sex differences in a college population. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48, 173-178.
64. Gardner, R. M., Friedman, B. N., & Jackson, N. A. (1999). Hispanic and White children's judgments of perceived and ideal body size in self and others. Psychological Record, 49, 555-564.
65. Gardner, R. M., Friedman, B. N., Stark, K., & Jackson, N. A. (1999). Body size estimations in children six through fourteen: A longitudinal study. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 88, 541-555.
66. Garner, D. M. (1997, January-February). The 1997 Body Image Survey results. Psychology Today, 30, 30-84.
67. Garner, D. M., Olmstead, M. A., & Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2, 15-34.
68. Gil-Kashiwabara, E. F. (2002). Body image disturbance and disordered eating in African-American and Latina women. In L. H. Collins & M. R. Dunlap (Eds.), Charting a new course for feminist psychology (pp. 282-306). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
69. Gilmore, T. (2001). Influence of shame, female identity, and ethnic identity on body image across women's life-span. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Fuller Theological Seminary.
70. Gluck, M. E., & Geliebter, A. (2002). Racial/ethnic differences in body image and eating behaviors. Eating Behaviors, 3, 143-151.
71. Grabe, S. (2004). Body image dissatisfaction and women's HIV-related sexual risk taking: The mediating roles of negative affect and sex motives in a longitudinal community sample. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia.
72. Granner, M. L., Black, D. R., & Abood, D. A. (2002). Levels of cigarette and alcohol use related to eating-disorder attitudes. American Journal of Health Behavior, 26, 43-55.
73. Gray, J. J., Ford, K., & Kelly, L. M. (1987). The prevalence of bulimia in a Black college population. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 6, 733-740.
74. Greenberg, D. R., & LaPorte, D. J. (1996). Racial differences in body type preferences of men for women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 19, 275-278.
75. Hall, C. C. (1995). Asian eyes: Body image and eating disorders of Asian and Asian American women. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment & Prevention, 31, 8-19.
76. Harris, A. C. (1996). African American and Anglo American gender identities: An empirical study. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 182-194.
77. Harris, S. M. (1994). Racial differences in predictors of college women's body image attitudes. Women & Health, 21, 89-104.
78. Haudek, C., Rorty, M., & Henker, B. (1999). The role of ethnicity and parental bonding in the eating and weight concerns of Asian-American and Caucasian college women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 25, 425-433.
79. Hedges, L. V. (1981). Distribution theory for Glass's estimator of effect size and related estimators. Journal of Educational Statistics, 6, 107-128.
80. Hedges, L. V., & Becker, B. J. (1986). Statistical methods in the meta-analysis of research on gender differences. In J. S. Hyde & M. C. Linn (Eds.), The psychology of gender (pp. 14-50). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
81. Hedges, L. V., & Vevea, J. L. (1998). Fixed- and random-effects models in meta-analysis. Psychological Methods, 3, 486-504.
82. Heinberg, L. J., Thompson, J. K., & Matzon, J. L. (2001). Body image dissatisfaction as a motivator for healthy lifestyle change: Is some distress beneficial? In R. H. Striegel-Moore & L. Smolak (Eds.), Eating disorders: Innovative directions in research and practice (pp. 215-232). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
83. Heinberg, L. J., Thompson, J. K., & Stormer, S. (1995). Development and validation of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 17, 81-89.
84. Henriques, G. R., & Calhoun, L. G. (1999). Gender and ethnic differences in the relationship between body esteem and self-esteem. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary & Applied, 133, 357-368.
85. Henriques, G. R., Calhoun, L. G., & Cann, A. (1996). Ethnic differences in women's body satisfaction: An experimental investigation. Journal of Social Psychology, 136, 689-697.
86. Hogan, K. B. (2001). Predictors of binge eating and bulimic symptoms in a community population of Black and Hispanic women. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Northwestern University.
87. Jackson, L. A., & McGill, O. D. (1996). Body type preferences and body characteristics associated with attractive and unattractive bodies by African American and Anglo Americans. Sex Roles, 35, 295-307.
88. Johnson, C., Crosby, R., Engel, S., Mitchell, J., Powers, P., Wittrock, D., & Wonderlick, S. (2004). Gender, ethnicity, self-esteem and disordered eating among college athletes. Eating Behaviors, 5, 147-156.
89. Johnson, F., & Wardle, J. (2005). Dietary restraint, body dissatisfaction, and psychological distress: A prospective analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 119-125.
90. Jones, D. C. (2004). Body image among adolescent girls and boys: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 40, 823-835.
91. Kawamura, K. Y. (2001). Body image attitudes of Asian American and Caucasian American women and men. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts at Amherst.
92. Kawamura, K. Y. (2002). Asian American body images. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 243-249). New York: Guilford Press.
93. Kemper, K. A. (1993). Black and White adolescent females' perceptions of ideal body size and social norms. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Coastal Carolina University.
94. Koff, E., Benavage, A., & Wong, B. (2001). Body-image attitudes and psychosocial functioning in Euro-American and Asian-American college women. Psychological Reports, 88, 917-928.
95. Lawrence, C. M., & Thelen, M. H. (1995). Body image, dieting, and self-concept: Their relation in African-American and Caucasian children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 24, 41-48.
96. Lennon, S. J., Rudd, N. A., Sloan, B., & Kim, J. (1999). Attitudes toward gender roles, self-esteem, and body image: Application of a model. Clothing & Textile Research Journal, 17, 191-202.
97. Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
98. Lopez, E., Blix, G. G., & Blix, A. G. (1995). Body image of Latinas compared to body image of non-Latina White women. Health Values: The Journal of Health Behavior, Education & Promotion, 19, 3-10.
99. Lovejoy, M. (2001). Disturbances in the social body: Differences in body image and eating problems among African American and White women. Gender & Society, 15, 239-261.
100. Mastria, M. (2002). Ethnicity and eating disorders. Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy, 19, 59-77.
101. McComb, J. R., & Clopton, J. R. (2002). Explanatory variance in bulimia nervosa. Women & Health, 36, 115-123.
102. Mendelson, B. K., & White, D. R. (1985). Development of self-body-esteem in overweight youngsters. Developmental Psychology, 21, 90-96.
103. Miller, K. J., Gleaves, D. H., Hirsch, T. G., Green, B. A., Snow, A. C., & Corbett, C. C. (2000). Comparisons of body image dimensions by race/ethnicity and gender in a university population. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 27, 310-316.
104. Mintz, L. B., & Kashubeck, S. (1999). Body image and disordered eating among Asian American and Caucasian college students: An examination of race and gender differences. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 23, 781-796.
105. Moss, R. C. (2004). Influences on body image and eating behaviors: An ethnic study of young adolescent females. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Arkansas.
106. Mukai, T., Kambara, A., & Sasaki, Y. (1998). Body dissatisfaction, need for social approval, and eating disturbances among Japanese and American college women. Sex Roles, 39, 751-763.
107. Must, A., Spadano, J., Coakley, E. H., Field, A. E., Colditz, G., & Dietz, W. H. (1999). The disease burden associated with overweight and obesity. JAMA, 282, 1523-1529.
108. Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1987). Sex differences in unipolar depression: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 259-282.
109. Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2001). Gender differences in depression. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 173-176.
110. Ogden, J., & Elder, C. (1998). The role of family status and ethnic group on body image and eating behavior. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 23, 309-315.
111. O'Neill, S. K. (2003). Body image among women of color and White women: A meta-analysis. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at Albany.
112. Owens, L. K., Hughes, T. L., & Owens-Nicholson, D. (2003). The effects of sexual orientation on body image and attitudes about eating and weight. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 7, 15-33.
113. Pan, A. S. (2000). Body image, eating attitudes, and eating behaviors among Chinese, Chinese-American and non-Hispanic White women. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, George Mason University.
114. Parker, S., Nichter, M., Vuckovic, N., Sims, C., & Ritenbaugh, C. (1995). Body image and weight concerns among African American and White adolescent females: Differences that make a difference. Human Organization, 54, 103-114.
115. Perez, M., & Joiner, T. E. (2003). Body image dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Black and White women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 33, 342-350.
116. Petersons, M., Rojhani, A., Steinhaus, N., & Larkin, B. (2000). Effect of ethnic identity on attitudes, feelings, and behaviors toward food. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment &. Prevention, 8, 207-219.
117. Phares, V., Steinberg, A. R., & Thompson, J. K. (2004). Gender differences in peer and parental influences: Body image disturbance, self-worth, and psychological functioning in preadolescent children. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 33, 421-429.
118. Powell, A. D., & Kahn, A. S. (1995). Racial differences in women's desires to be thin. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 17, 191-195.
119. Prendergast, K. S. (2001). Body image and locus of control, in children and adolescents. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Alfred University.
120. Pruzinsky, T., & Cash, T. F. (2002). Understanding body images: Historical and contemporary perspectives. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 3-12). New York: Guilford Press.
121. Reed, D. L., Thompson, J. K., & Brannick, M. T. (1991). Development and validation of the Physical Appearance State and Trait Anxiety Scale (PASTAS). Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 5, 323-332.
122. Rierdan, J., Koff, E., & Stubbs, M. L. (1989). A longitudinal analysis of body image as a predictor of the onset and persistence of adolescent girls' depression. Journal of Early Adolescence, 9, 454-466.
123. Riniolo, T. C. (1997). Publication bias: A computer-assisted demonstration of excluding nonsignificant results from research interpretation. Teaching Psychology, 24, 279-282.
124. Roberts, R. A. (1993). Ethnicity, body image dissatisfaction, and eating disorders: The differential impact of norms of attractiveness on Black and White women. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Louisville, KY.
125. Robinson, T. N., Killen, J. D., Litt, I. F., Hammer, L. D., Wilson, D. M., Haydel, K. F., et al. (1996). Ethnicity and body dissatisfaction: Are Hispanic and Asian girls at increased risk for eating disorders? Journal of Adolescent Health, 19, 384-393.
126. Rosen, E. F., Anthony, D. L., Booker, K. M., Brown, T. L., Christian, E., Crews, R. C., et al. (1991). A comparison of eating disorder scores among African-American and White college females. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 29, 65-66.
127. Rucker, C. E., & Cash, T. F. (1992). Body image, body-size perceptions, and eating behaviors among African-American and White college women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 12, 291-299.
128. Russel, W. D., & Cox, R. H. (2003). Social physique anxiety, body dissatisfaction, and self-esteem in college females of differing exercise frequency, perceived weight discrepancy, and race. Journal of Sport Behavior, 26, 297-318.
129. Sánchez-Johnson, L. A., Fitzgibbon, M. L., Martinovich, Z., Stolley, M. R., Dyer, A. R., & Van Horn, L. (2004). Ethnic differences in correlates of obesity between Latin-American and Black women. Obesity Research, 12, 652-660.
130. Sanders, N. M., & Heiss, C. J. (1998). Eating attitudes mid body image of Asian and Caucasian college women. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment & Prevention, 6, 15-27.
131. Schooler, D., Ward, L. M., Merriwether, A., & Caruthers, A. (2004). Who's that girl: Television's role in the body image development of young White and Black women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 38-47.
132. Secord, P. F., & Jourard, S. M. (1953). The appraisal of body cathexis: Body cathexis and the self. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 17, 343-347.
133. Shaw, H., Ramirez, L., Trost, A., Randall, P., & Slice, E. (2004). Body image and eating disturbances across ethnic groups: More similarities than differences. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 18, 12-18.
134. Shulman, J. L., & Home, S. G. (2003). The use of self-pleasure: Masturbation and body image among African American and European American women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 27, 262-269.
135. Siegel, J. M. (2002). Body image change and adolescent depressive symptoms. Journal of Adolescent Research, 17, 27-41.
136. Smith, D. E., Thompson, J. K., Raczynski, J. M., & Hilner, J. E. (1999). Body image among men and women in a biracial cohort: 'The CARDIA study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 25, 71-82.
137. Smith, R. E. (2003). Weight concern in at-risk early adolescent girls: The role of problem behavior and peer processes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Oregon.
138. Smolak, L., & Striegel-Moore, R. H. (2001). Challenging the myth of the golden girl: Ethnicity and eating disorders. In R. H. Striegel-Moore & L. Smolak (Eds.), Eating disorders: Innovative directions in research and practice (pp. 111-132). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
139. Sobel, J., & Stunkard, A. (1989). Socioeconomic status and obesity: A review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 260-275.
140. Stevens, J., Kumanyika, S. K., & Keil, J. E. (1994). Attitudes towards body size and dieting: Differences between elderly Black and White women. American Journal of Public Health, 84, 1322-1325.
141. Stice, E., & Bearman, S. K. (2001). Body-image and eating disturbances prospectively predict increases in depressive symptoms in adolescent girls: A growth curve analysis. Developmental Psychology, 37, 597-607.
142. Stice, E., Killen, J. D., Hayward, C., & Taylor, C. B. (1998). Age of onset for binge eating and purging during late adolescence: A 4-year survival analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 671-675.
143. Stice, E., & Shaw, H. E., (2002). Role of body dissatisfaction in the onset and maintenance of eating pathology: A synthesis of research findings. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53, 985-993.
144. Story, M., French, S. A., & Resnick, M. D. (1995). Ethnic/racial and socioeconomic differences in dieting behaviors and body image perceptions in adolescents. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 18, 173-179.
145. Striegel-Moore, R. H., Schreiber, G. B., Lo, A., Crawford, P., Obarzanek, E., & Rodin, J. (2000). Eating disorder symptoms in a cohort of 11- to 16-year-old Black and White girls: The NHMBI Growth and Health Study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 27, 49-66.
146. Streigel-Moore, R. H., Schreiber, G. B., Pike, K. M., Wilfley, D. E., & Rodin, J. (1995). Drive for thinness in Black and White préadolescent girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 18, 59-69.
147. Stunkard, A. J., Sorenson, T., & Schlusinger, F. (1983). Use of the Danish Adoption Register for the study of obesity and thinness. In S. Kety, L. P. Rowland, R. L. Sidman, & S. W. Matthaysse (Eds.), The genetics of neurological, and psychiatric disorders (pp. 115-120). New York: Raven Press.
148. Suldo, S. M., & Sandberg, D. A. (2000). Relationship between attachment styles and eating disorder symptomatology among college women. Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 15, 59-73.
149. Thompson, J. K., Altabe, M., Johnson, S., & Stormer, S. M. (1994). Factor analysis of multiple measures of body image disturbance: Are we all measuring the same construct? International Journal of Eating Disorders, 3, 311-315.
150. Thompson, J. K., Heinberg, L. J., Altabe, M. N., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (1999). Exacting beauty: Theory, assessment, and treatment of body image disturbance. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
151. Thompson, J. K., Penner, L. A., & Altabe, M. N. (1990). Procedures, problems, and progress in the assessment of body image. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body images; Development, deviance, and change (pp. 21-48). New York: Guilford Press.
152. Thompson, J. K., & Slice, E. (2001). Thin-ideal internalization: Mounting evidence for a new risk factor for body-image disturbance and eating pathology. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 181-183.
153. Thompson, J. K., & van den Berg, P. (2002). Measuring body image attitudes among adolescents and adults. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice (pp. 142-154). New York: Guilford Press.
154. Thompson, S. H., & Sargent, R. G. (2000). Black and White women's weight-related attitudes and parental criticism of their childhood appearance. Women & Health, 30, 77-92.
155. Thompson-Leonardelli, K. I. (2003). Is thin in: The influence of socio-cultural variables on the development of body image and disordered eating in African and. European American college women. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University.
156. Tiggemann, M., & Lynch, J. E. (2001). Body image across the life span in adult women: The role of self-objectification. Developmental Psychology, 37, 243-253.
157. Turnbull, D. B. (1999). Weight control strategies and eating disorder tendencies among college women in four ethnic groups (African American, Asian American, European American, Hispanic American). Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Pacific Graduate School Of Psychology.
158. Tylka, T. L. (2004). The relation between body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptomatology: An analysis of moderating variables. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 178-191.
159. Tylka, T. L. (2005). [Body dissatisfaction]. Unpublished raw data.
160. Tylka, T. L., & Subich, L. M. (1999). Exploring the construct validity of the eating disorders continuum. Journal, of Counseling Psychology, 46, 268-276.
161. Ullman, S. E., & Filipas, H. H. (2005). Ethnicity and child sexual abuse experiences of female college students. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 14, 67-89.
162. U.S. Bureau of the Census. (2005). American Community Survey - Multi-Year Profile. Retrieved January 2006 from http://www.census.gov/acs/WWW/
163. Vander Wal, J. S. (2004). Eating and body image concerns among average-weight and obese African American and Hispanic girls. Eating Disorders, 5, 181-187.
164. Vartanian, L. R., Giant, C. L., & Passino, R. M. (2001). "Ally McBeal vs. Arnold Schwarzenegger": Comparing mass media, interpersonal feedback and gender as predictors of satisfaction with body thinness and muscularity. Social Behavior & Personality, 29, 711-723.
165. Walker, L., Timmerman, G. M., Kim, M., & Sterling, B. (2002). Relationships between body image and depressive symptoms during postpartum in ethnically diverse, low income women. Women & Health, 36, 101-121.
166. White, M. A., Kohlmaier, J. R., Varnado-Sullivan, P., & Williamson, D. A. (2003). Racial/ethnic difference in weight concerns: Protective and risk factors for the development of eating disorders and obesity among adolescent females. Eating & Weight Disorders, 8, 20-25.
167. Wildes, J. E., Emery, R. E., & Simons, A. D. (2001). The roles of ethnicity and culture in the development of eating disturbance and body dissatisfaction: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 21, 521-551.
168. Wilfley, D. E., Schreiber, G. B., Pike, K. M., & Striegel-Moore, R. H. (1996). Eating disturbance and body image: A comparison of a community sample of adult Black and White women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 20, 377-387.
169. Wombie, L., Williamson, D. A., Martin, C. K., Zucker, N. L., Thaw, J. M., Netemeyer, R., et al. (2001). Psychosocial variables associated with binge eating in obese males and females. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 30, 217-221.
170. Yates, A., Edman, J., & Aruguete, M. (2004). Ethnic difference in BMI and body/self-dissatisfaction among Whites, Asian subgroups, Pacific Islanders, and African-Americans. Journal of Adolescent Health, 34, 300-307.