What are the differences between happiness and self-esteem?

Social Indicators Research

Volumn 78, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 363-404

  Lyubomirsky, Sonja ^a   Tkach, Chris ^a   DiMatteo, M Robin ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Affect; Agency; Happiness; Nomological net; Personality; Self esteem; Subjective well being

Indexed keywords

SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS;

EID: 33746058255     PISSN: 03038300     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11205-005-0213-y     Document Type: Article

References (154)

1. Andrews F.M. (1991). Stability and change in levels and structure of subjective well-being: USA 1972 and 1988. Social Indicators Research 25: 1-30
2. Andrews F.M. and Withey S.B. (1976). Social Indicators of Well-Being: America's Perception of Life Quality. Plenum Press, New York
3. Argyle M. (1999). 'Causes and correlates of happiness'. In: Kahneman, D., Diener, E. and Schwarz, N. (eds) Well-Being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology, pp 353-375. Russell Sage Foundation, New York
4. Argyle M. (1987). The Psychology of Happiness. Methuen, London
5. Aspinwall L.G. and Taylor S.E. (1992). Modeling cognitive adaptation: A longitudinal investigation of the impact of individual differences and coping on college adjustment and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63: 989-1003
6. Atchley, R.C.: 1994, Social Forces and Aging, 7th edn. (Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, US)
7. Baker L.A., Cesav I.L., Gatz M. and Mellins C. (1992). Genetic and environmental influences on positive and negative affect: Support for a two-factor theory. Psychology and Aging 7: 158-163
8. Bandura A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, US
9. Bandura A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, US
10. Bandura A. (1997). Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. W.H. Freeman, New York
11. Baruch G.K. and Barnett R.C. (1986). Role quality, multiple role involvement and psychological well-being in midlife women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51: 578-585
12. Block J. and Kremen A.M. (1996). IQ and ego-resiliency: Conceptual and empirical connections and separateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70: 349-361
13. Bradburn N.M. (1969). The Structure of Psychological Well-Being. Alpine, Chicago
14. Brandtstadter J. and Greve W. (1994). Explaining the resilience of the aging self: Reply to Carstensen and Freund. Developmental Review 14: 93-102
15. Brebner J., Donaldson J., Kirby N. and Ward L. (1995). Relationships between happiness and personality. Personality and Individual Differences 19: 251-258
16. Brickman P., Coates D. and Janoff-Bulman R. (1978). Lottery winners and accident victims: Is happiness relative?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 36: 917-927
17. Campbell A. (1981). The Sense of Well-Being in America. McGraw-Hill, New York
18. Campbell A., Converse P. and Rodgers W. (1976). 'The Quality of American Life'. Russell Sage Foundation, New York
19. Campbell J.D. (1990). Self-esteem and clarity of the self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59: 538-549
20. Campbell J.D. and Lavallee L.F. (1993). Who am I? The role of self-concept confusion in understanding the behavior of people with low self-esteem. In: Baumeister, R.F. (eds) Self-esteem: The Puzzle of Low Self-Regard, pp 3-20. Plenum Press, New York
21. Cantor N. and Sanderson C.A. (1999). Life task participation and well-being: The importance of taking part in daily life. In: Kahneman, D., Diener, E. and Schwarz, N. (eds) Well-Being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology, pp 230-243. Russell Sage Foundation, New York
22. Carver C.S. and Gaines J.G. (1987). Optimism, pessimism and post-partum depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research 11: 449-462
23. Carver C.S. and Scheier M.F. (1981). Attention and Self-Regulation: A Control-Theory Approach to Human Behavior. Springer-Verlag, New York
24. Creed P.A., Patton W. and Bartrum D. A. (2002). Multidimensional properties of the LOT-R: Effects of optimism and pessimism on career and well-being related variables in adolescents. Journal of Career Assessment 10: 42-61
25. Cohen J. (1977). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. Academic Press, New York
26. Coleman P.G., Ivani-Chalian C. and Robinson M. (1993). Self-esteem and its sources: Stability and change in later life. Aging and Society 13: 171-192
27. Coopersmith S. (1967). The Antecedents of Self-Esteem. W.H. Freeman, San Francisco
28. McCrae R.R. (1980). Influence of extraversion and neuroticism on subjective well-being: Happy and unhappy people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 38: 668-678
29. McCrae R.R. (1992). NEO PI-R: Professional Manual. Psychological Assessment Resources Inc., Odessa, FL, US
30. Costa P.T., McCrae R.R. and Norris A.H. (1981). Personal adjustment to aging: Longitudinal prediction from neuroticism and extraversion. Journal of Gerontology 36: 78-85
31. McCrae R.R. and Zonderman A.B. (1987). Environmental and dispositional influences on well-being: Longitudinal follow-up of an American national sample. British Journal of Psychology 78: 229-306
32. Crocker J. and Major B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review 96: 608-630
33. Crumbaugh J. (1968). Cross-validation of a purpose in-life test based on Frankl's concepts. Journal of Individual Psychology 24: 74-81
34. Csikszentmihalyi M. (1990). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. Harper and Row, New York
35. Csikszentmihalyi M. and Hunter J. (2003). Happiness in everyday life: The use of experience sampling. Journal of Happiness Studies 4: 185-199
36. Csikszentmihalyi M. and Wong M.M. (1991). The situational and personal correlates of happiness: A cross-national comparison. In: Strack and S. Argyle, N.M.F. (eds) Subjective Well-Being: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. International Series in Experimental Social Psychology, pp 193-212. Pergamon Press, Oxford, England
37. Deci E.L. and Ryan R.M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. Plenum, New York
38. DeNeve K.M. and Cooper H. (1998). The happy personality: A meta-analysis of 137 personality traits and subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin 124: 197-229
39. Diener E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin 95: 542-575
40. Diener E. (1994). Assessing subjective well-being: Progress and opportunities. Social Indicators Research 31: 103-157
41. Diener E. (1996). Personality and subjective well-being. In: Barone, D. and Hersen, M. (eds) Advanced Personality, pp. Plenum Press, New York
42. Diener E. and Diener M. (1995). Cross-cultural correlates of life satisfaction and self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68: 653-663
43. Diener E., Emmons R.A., Larsen R.J. and Griffin S. (1985a). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment 49: 71-75
44. Diener E., Larsen R.J., Levine S. and Emmons R.A. (1985b). Intensity and frequency: Dimensions underlying positive and negative affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 48: 1253-1265
45. Diener E., Sandvik E. and Pavot W. (1991). 'Happiness is the frequency, not the intensity, of positive versus negative affect'. In: Strack, F., Argyle, M., and Schwarz, N. (eds) Subjective Well-Being: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. International Series in Experimental Social Psychology, pp 119-139. Pergamon Press, Oxford
46. Diener E., Suh E.M., Lucas R.E. and Smith H.L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin 125: 276-302
47. Dietz B.E. (1996). The relationship of aging to self-esteem: The relative effects of maturation and role accumulation. International Journal of Aging and Human Development 43: 249-266
48. Di Paula A. and Campbell J.D. (2002). Self-esteem and persistence in the face of failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83: 711-724
49. Dunning D., Leuenberger A. and Sherman D.A. (1995). A new look at motivated inference: Are self-serving theories of success a product of motivational forces?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69: 58-68
50. Emmons R.A. and Diener E. (1985). Personality correlates of subjective well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 11: 89-97
51. Emmons R.A., Diener E. and Larsen R.J. (1986). Choice and avoidance of everyday situations and affect congruence: Two models of reciprocal interactionism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51: 815-826
52. Epstein S. (1973). The self-concept revisited or a theory of a theory. American Psychologist 5: 404-416
53. Eysenck H.J. and Eysenck M.W. (1985). Personality and Individual Differences: A Natural Science Approach. Plenum Press, New York
54. Eysenck M.W. (1990). Happiness: Facts and Myths. Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers, East Sussex, England
55. Feist G.J., Bodner T.E., Jacobs J.F., Miles M. and Tan V. (1995). Integrating top-down and bottom-up structural models of subjective well-being: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68: 138-150
56. Fenichel O. (1945). The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis. Norton, New York
57. Fleming J.S. and Courtney B.F. (1984). The dimensionality of self-esteem: II. Hierarchical facet model for revised measurement scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46: 404-421
58. Fordyce M.W. (1988). A review of research on the happiness measures: A sixty second index of happiness and mental health. Social Indicators Research 20: 355-381
59. Freedman J. (1978). Happy People: What Happiness is, Who Has It and Why. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York
60. George L.K. (1978). The impact of personality and social status factors upon levels of activity and psychological well-being. Journal of Gerontology 33: 840-847
61. Gove W.R., Ortega S.T. and Briggs C. (1989). The maturational and role perspectives on aging and self through the adult years: An empirical evaluation. American Journal of Sociology 94: 1117-1145
62. Grob A., Stetsenko A., Sabatier C., Botcheva L. and Macek P. (1999). A cross-national model of subjective well-being in adolescence. In: Alsaker, F.D., Flammer, A., and Bodmer, N. (eds) The Adolescent Experience: European and American Adolescents in the 1990s, pp 115-130. Erlbaum, New York
63. Gurin G., Veroff J. and Feld S. (1960). Americans View Their Mental Health. Basic Books, New York
64. Harter S. (1993). Causes and consequences of low self-esteem in children and adolescents. In: Baumeister, R.F. (eds) Self-Esteem: The Puzzle of Low Self-Regard, pp 87-116. Plenum Press, New York
65. Hays R.D. and DiMatteo M.R. (1987). A short-form measure of loneliness. Journal of Personality Assessment 51: 69-81
66. Headey B. and Wearing A. (1989). Personality, life events and subjective well-being: Toward a dynamic equilibrium model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57: 731-739
67. Heider F. (1958). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. John Wiley, New York
68. Henderson S., Byrne D. and Duncan-Jones P. (1981). Neurosis and the Social Environment. Academic Press, Sydney
69. Kahana E., Redmond C., Hill G.J., Kahana B., Johnson J.R. and Young R.F. (1995). The effects of stress, vulnerability, and appraisals on the psychological well-being of the elderly. Research on Aging 17: 459-489
70. Kernis M.H., Cornell D.P., Sun C., Berry A. and Harlow T. (1993). There's more to self-esteem than whether it is high or low: The importance of stability of self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65: 1190-1204
71. Kozma A. and Stones M.J. (1978). Some research issues and findings in the assessment of well-being in the elderly. Canadian Psychological Review 19: 241-249
72. Kozma A. and Stones M.J. (1980). The measurement of happiness: Development of the Memorial University of Newfoundland Scale of Happiness (MUNSH). Journal of Gerontology 35: 906-912
73. Larsen R., Diener E. and Emmons R. (1985). An evaluation of subjective well-being measures. Social Indicators Research 17: 1-17
74. Larsen R.J. and Ketelaar T. (1989). Extraversion, neuroticism and susceptibility to positive and negative mood induction procedures. Personality and Individual Differences 10: 12221-1228
75. Lee G.R. and Ishii-Kuntz M. (1987). Social interaction, loneliness and emotional well-being among the elderly. Research on Aging 9: 459-482
76. Lepper H.S.: 1996, 'In Pursuit of Happiness and Satisfaction in Later Life: A Study of Competing Theories of Subjective Well-being', Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside CA, US
77. Lepper H.S. (1998). Use of other-reports to validate subjective well-being measures. Social Indicators Research 44: 367-379
78. Locke E.A. and Latham G.P. (1990). A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, US
79. Lubin B., Zuckerman M., Breytspraak L.M. and Bull N.C. (1988). Affects, demographic variables, and health. Journal of Clinical Psychology 44: 131-141
80. Lucas R.E., Diener E. and Suh E. (1996). Discriminant validity of well-being measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71: 616-628
81. Lyubomirsky S. (2001). Why are some people happier than others?: The role of cognitive and motivational processes in well-being. American Psychologist 56: 239-249
82. Lyubomirsky S., L.A. King and E. Diener: In press, 'The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success?' Psychological Bulletin
83. Lyubomirsky S. and Lepper H.S. (1999). A measure of subjective happiness: Preliminary reliability and construct validation. Social Indicators Research 46: 137-155
84. Lyubomirsky S. and Ross L. (1997). Hedonic consequences of social comparison: A contrast of happy and unhappy people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73: 1141-1157
85. Lyubomirsky S., K.M. Sheldon and D. Schkade: 2005, 'Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustainable change,' Review of General Psychology, pp. 111-131
86. Lyubomirsky S. and Tkach C. (2004). The consequences of dysphoric rumination. In: Papageorgiou, C. and Wells, A. (eds) Depressive Rumination, pp 21-43. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, West Sussex, England
87. Lyubomirsky S. and Tucker K.L. (1998). Implications of individual differences in self-reported happiness for perceiving, thinking about and recalling life events. Motivation and Emotion 22: 155-186
88. Magnus K., Diener E., Fujita F. and Pavot W. (1993). Extraversion and neuroticism as predictors of objective life events: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65: 1046-1053
89. Markus H.R. and Kitayama S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion and motivation. Psychological Review 98: 224-253
90. Maslow A.: 1970, Motivation and Personality, 2nd edn. (Harper, New York)
91. Mastekaasa A. (1994). Marital status, distress and well-being: An international comparison. Journal of Comparative Family Studies 25: 183-205
92. McCrae R.R. (1991). Adding Liebe und Arbeit: The full five-factor model and well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17: 227-232
93. Meng X., Rosenthal R. and Rubin D.B. (1992). Comparing correlated correlation coefficients. Psychological Bulletin 111: 172-175
94. Michalos A.C. (1985). Multiple Discrepancies Theory (MDT). Social Indicators Research 16: 347-413
95. Murray H.A. (1938). Explorations in Personality. Oxford University Press, New York
96. Myers D.G. (1992). The Pursuit of Happiness. William Morrow, New York
97. Myers D.G. and Diener E. (1995). Who is happy?. Psychological Science 6: 10-19
98. Okun M.A., Stock W.A., Haring M.J. and Witter R.A. (1984). Health and subjective well-being: A meta-analysis. International Journal on Aging and Human Development 19: 111-132
99. Omodei M.M. and Wearing A.J. (1990). Need satisfaction and involvement in personal projects: Toward an integrative model of subjective well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59: 762-769
100. Patton W., Bartrum D.A. and Creed P.A. (2004). Gender differences for optimism, self-esteem, expectations and goals in predicting career planning and exploration in adolescents. Journal of Career Development 30: 277-294
101. Parducci A. (1995). Happiness, Pleasure and Judgment: The Contextual Theory and its Applications. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, US
102. Pavot W. and Diener E. (1993). The affective and cognitive context of self-reported measures of subjective well-being. Social Indicators Research 28: 1-20
103. Pavot W., Diener E. and Fujita F. (1990). Extraversion and happiness. Personality and Individual Differences 11: 1299-1306
104. (1982,). Loneliness: A Source Book of Current Theory, Research and Therapy. Wiley, New York
105. Pearlin L., Lieberman M., Menaghan E. and Mullan J. (1981). The stress process. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 22: 337-356
106. Pressman S.D., and S. Cohen: In press, 'The influence of positive affect on health: A review' Psychological Bulletin
107. Reis H.T. (1984). Social interaction and well-being. In: Duck, S. (eds) Personal Relationships, 5: Repairing Personal Relationships, pp. Academic Press, London
108. Reis H.T., Sheldon K.M., Gable S.L., Roscoe R. and Ryan R.M. (2000). The role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 22: 419-435
109. Roberts B.W. and Chapman C.N. (2000). Change in dispositional well-being and its relation to role quality: A 30-year longitudinal study. Journal of Research in Personality 34: 26-41
110. Rogers C. (1961). On Becoming a Person. Houghton Mifflin, Boston
111. Rosenberg M. (1965). Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, US
112. Ross M., Eyman A. and Kishchuk N. (1986). Determinants of subjective well-being. In: Olson, J.M., Herman, C.P., and Zanna, M.P. (eds) Relative Deprivation and Social Comparison: The Ontario Symposium (vol. 4), pp 79-93. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ
113. Russell R.J.H. and Wells P.A. (1994). Predictors of happiness in married couples. Personality and Individual Differences 17: 313-321
114. Rusting C.L. (1998). Personality, mood and cognitive processing of emotional information: Three conceptual frameworks. Psychological Bulletin 124: 165-196
115. Ryff C.D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57: 1069-1081
116. Ryff C.D. and Keyes C.L.M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69: 719-727
117. Scheier M.F. and Carver C.S. (1985). Optimism, coping and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Personality 4: 219-247
118. Scheier M.F., Carver C.S. and Bridges M.W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67: 1063-1078
119. Schimmack U., Oishi S., Furr R.M. and Funder D.C. (2004). Personality and life satisfaction: A facet-level analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30: 1062-1075
120. Schulz R.: 1985, 'Emotion and affect', in J.E. Birren and K.W. Schaie (eds.), Handbook of the Psychology of Aging, 2nd edn. (Van Nostrand Reinhold Co, Inc., New York)
121. Schwarz N. and Bohner G. (1996). Feelings and their motivational implications: Moods and the action sequence. In: Gollwitzer, P.M. and Bargh, J.A. (eds) The Psychology of Action: Linking Cognition and Motivation to Behavior, pp 119-145. Guilford Press, New York
122. Schwarz N. and Clore G.L. (1983). Mood, misattribution and judgments of well-being: Informative and directive functions of affective states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 45: 513-523
123. Sears D.O. (1986). College sophomores in the laboratory: Influences of a narrow data base on social psychology's view of human nature. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51: 515-530
124. Seery M.D., Blascovich J., Weisbuch M. and Vick S.B. (2004). The relationship between self-esteem level, self-esteem stability, and cardiovascular reactions to performance feedback. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87: 133-145
125. Seidlitz L. and Diener E. (1993). Memory for positive versus negative life events: Theories for the differences between happy and unhappy persons. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64: 654-663
126. Seligman M.E.P. (1991). Learned Optimism. A.A. Knopf, New York
127. Sheldon K.M. and Elliot A.J. (1999). Goal striving, need satisfaction and longitudinal well-being: The self-concordance model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76: 482-497
128. Sheldon K.M. and Kasser T. (1995). Coherence and congruence: Two aspects of personality integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68: 531-543
129. Sheldon K.M. and Kasser T. (2001). Getting older, getting better? Personal strivings and psychological maturity across the life span. Developmental Psychology 37: 491-501
130. Sheldon K.M., Ryan R.M. and Reis H.T. (1996). What makes for a good day? Competence and autonomy in the day and in the person. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 22: 1270-1279
131. Sherbourne C.D. (1992). Pain measures. In: Stewart, A.L. and Ware, J.E. (eds) Measuring functioning and well-being, pp 220-234. Duke University Press, London
132. Sherbourne C.D. and Stewart A.L. (1991). The MOS social support survey. Social Science and Medicine 32: 705-714
133. Sherbourne C.D., Allen H.M., Kamberg C.J. and Wells K.B. (1992). Physical/psychophysiologic symptoms measure. In: Stewart, A.L. and Ware, J.E. (eds) Measuring Functioning and Well-Being, pp 260-272. Duke University Press, Durham, NC
134. Smith T.W., Pope M.K., Rhodewalt F. and Poulton J.L. (1989). Optimism, neuroticism, coping, and symptom reports: An alternative interpretation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56: 640-648
135. Spencer S.J., Josephs R.A. and Steele C.M. (1993). Low self-esteem: The uphill struggle for self-integrity. In: Baumeister, R.F. (eds) Self-Esteem: The Puzzle of Low Self-Regard, pp 21-36. Plenum Press, New York
136. Stewart A.L. and Kamberg C.J. (1992). Physical functioning measures. In: Stewart, A.L. and Ware, J.E. (eds) Measuring Functioning and Well-Being, pp 86-101. Duke University Press, London
137. Stewart A.L., Hays R.D. and Ware J.E. (1992). Health perceptions, energy/ fatigue, and health distress measure. In: Stewart, A.L. and Ware, J.E. (eds) Measuring Functioning and Well-Being, pp 143-172. Duke University Press, Durham, NC
138. Stones M.J. and Kozma A. (1986). '"Happy are they who are happy...": A test between two causal models of relationships between happiness and its correlates. Experimental Aging Research 12: 23-29
139. Suh E., Diener E. and Fujita F. (1996). Events and subjective well-being: Only recent events matter. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70: 1091-1102
140. Taylor S.E. and Brown J.D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin 103: 193-210
141. Tennen H. and Affleck G. (1993). The puzzles of self-esteem: A clinical perspective. In: Baumeister, R.F. (eds) Self-Esteem: The Puzzle of Low Self-Regard, pp 241-262. Plenum Press, New York
142. Tkach, C. and S. Lyubomirsky: 2005, 'How do People Pursue Happiness?: Relating Personality, Happiness-Increasing strategies, and Well-Being', Manuscript submitted for publication
143. Trzesniewski K.H., Donnellan B.M. and Robins R.W. (2003). Stability of self-esteem across the life span. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84: 205-220
144. Ramanaiah N.V. (1979). A multimethod analysis of selected self-esteem measures. Journal of Research in Personality 13: 16-24
145. Veenhoven R., 1997, 'The study of life satisfaction', Unpublished manuscript, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Netherlands
146. Watson D. and Walker L.M. (1996). The long-term stability and predictive validity of trait measures of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70: 567-577
147. Weeks D.G., Michela J.L., Peplau L.A. and Bragg M.E. (1980). Relation between loneliness and depression: A structural equation analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39: 1238-1244
148. Whitbourne S.K.: 1985, 'The psychological construction of the life span', in J.E. Birren and K.W. Schaie (eds.), Handbook of the Psychology of Aging, 2nd edn., The Handbooks of Aging (Van Nostrand Reinhold Co, Inc, New York), pp. 594-618
149. White R.W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological Review 66: 297-335
150. Whitley B.E. (1983). Sex role orientation and self-esteem: A critical meta-analytic review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44: 765-778
151. Wilson J. (1980). Sociology of leisure. Annual Review of Sociology 6: 21-40
152. Wilson W. (1967). Correlates of avowed happiness. Psychological Bulletin 67: 294-306
153. Wood J.V., Heimpel S.A. and Michela J.L. (2003). Savoring versus dampening: Self-esteem differences in regulating positive affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85: 566-580
154. Wylie R.C. (1979). The Self Concept, vol. 2. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE