Population biology of entomopathogenic nematodes: Concepts, issues, and models

Biological Control

Volumn 38, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 80-102

  Stuart, Robin J ^a   Barbercheck, Mary E ^b   Grewal, Parwinder S ^c   Taylor, Robin A J ^c   Hoy, Casey W ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA   (United States)

^b PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Biocontrol; Competition; Heterorhabditis; Metapopulations; Photorhabdus; Steinernema; Symbiosis; Xenorhabdus

Indexed keywords

BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS); ENTEROBACTERIACEAE; HETERORHABDITIDAE; HETERORHABDITIS; HEXAPODA; INSECTA; NEMATODA; PHOTORHABDUS; STEINERNEMA; STEINERNEMATIDAE; XENORHABDUS;

EID: 33744540662     PISSN: 10499644     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.biocontrol.2005.09.019     Document Type: Article

References (205)

1. Adl S.M. The Ecology of Soil Decomposition (2003), CAB International, Wallingford, UK 293 pp.
2. Akhurst R.J., and Brooks W.M. The distribution of entomophilic nematodes (Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae) in North Carolina. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 44 (1984) 140-145
3. Alatorre-Rosas R., and Kaya H.K. Interspecific competition between entomopathogenic nematodes in the genera Heterorhabditis and Steinernema for an insect host in sand. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 55 (1990) 179-188
4. Alatorre-Rosas R., and Kaya H.K. Interactions between two entomopathogenic nematode species in the same host. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 57 (1991) 1-6
5. Andrén O., and Lagerlöf J. Soil fauna (microarthropods, enchytraeids, nematodes) in Swedish agricultural cropping systems. Acta Agric. Scand. 33 (1983) 33-52
6. Barbercheck M.E. Effect of soil physical factors on biological control agents of soil insect pests. Fla. Entomol. 75 (1992) 539-548
7. Barbercheck M.E. Tritrophic level effects on entomopathogenic nematodes. Environ. Entomol. 22 (1993) 1166-1171
8. Barbercheck M.E., and Hoy C.W. A systems approach to conservation of nematodes. In: Grewal P.S., Ehlers R.-U., and Shapiro-Ilan D.I. (Eds). Nematodes as Biocontrol Agents (2005), CAB International, Wallingford, UK 331-347
9. Barbercheck M.E., and Kaya H.K. Interactions between Beauveria bassiana and the entomogenous nematodes, Steinernema feltiae and Heterorhabditis heliothidis. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 55 (1990) 225-234
10. Barbercheck M.E., and Kaya H.K. Effect of host condition and soil texture on host finding by the entomogenous nematodes Heterorhabditis bacteriophora (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae) and Steinernema carpocapsae (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae). Environ. Entomol. 20 (1991) 582-589
11. Barbercheck M.E., and Kaya H.K. Competitive interactions between entomopathogenic nematodes and Beauveria bassiana (Deuteromycotina: Hyphomycetes) in soilborne larvae of Spodoptera exigua (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Environ. Entomol. 20 (1991) 707-712
12. Barbercheck M.E., Wang J., and Hirsh I.S. Host plant effects on entomopathogenic nematodes. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 66 (1995) 169-177
13. Barbosa P., and Benrey P. The influence of plants on insect parasitoids: implications for conservation biological control. In: Barbosa P. (Ed). Conservation Biological Control (1998), Academic Press, San Diego, CA 235-254
14. Baur M.E., and Kaya H.K. Persistence of entomopathogenic nematodes. In: Baur M.E., Kaya H.K., and Fuxa J. (Eds). Environmental Persistence of Entomopathogens and Nematodes. Southern Cooperative Series Bulletin 398 (2001), Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station, Stillwater, OK 47
15. Baur M.E., Kaya H.K., and Strong D.R. Foraging ants as scavengers on entomopathogenic nematode-killed insects. Biol. Control 12 (1998) 231-236
16. Beavers J.B., McCoy C.W., and Kaplan D.T. Natural enemies of subterranean Diaprepes abbreviatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) larvae in Florida. Environ. Entomol. 12 (1983) 840-843
17. Bednarek A., and Gaugler R. Compatibility of soil amendments with entomopathogenic nematodes. J. Nematol. 29 (1997) 220-227
18. Bellows T.S. Controlling soil-borne plant pathogens. In: Bellows T.S., and Fisher T.W. (Eds). Handbook of Biological Control (1999), Academic Press, San Diego, CA 699-711
19. Bilgrami A.L., and Jairajpuri M.S. Predatory abilities of Mononchoides longicaudatus and M. fortidens (Nematoda: Diplogasterida) and factors influencing predation. Nematologica 35 (1989) 475-488
20. Bilgrami A.L., and Jairajpuri M.S. Resistance of prey to predation and strike rate of the predators Mononchoides longicaudatus and M. fortidens (Nematoda: Diplogasterida). Rev. Nematol. 12 (1989) 45-49
21. Blouin M.S., Liu J., and Berry R.E. Life cycle variation and the genetic structure of nematode populations. Heredity 8 (1999) 253-259
22. Boemare N. Biology, taxonomy, and systematics of Photorhabdus and Xenorhabdus. In: Gaugler R. (Ed). Entomopathogenic Nematology (2002), CABI, New York, NY 35-56
23. Bohan D.A., and Hominick W.M. Intra-population infectious structure and temporal variation in Steinernema feltiae. In: Griffin C.T., Gwynn R.L., and Masson J.P. (Eds). Ecology and Transmission Strategies of Entomopathogenic Nematodes (1995), European Commission, Luxembourg 83-94
24. Bohan D.A., and Hominick W.M. Investigations on the presence of an infectious proportion amongst populations of Steinernema feltiae (site 76 strain) infective stages. Parasitology 112 (1996) 113-118
25. Bohan D.A., and Hominick W.M. Sex and the dynamics of infection in the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae. J. Helminthol. 71 (1997) 197-201
26. Bohan D.A., and Hominick W.M. Long-term dynamics of infectiousness within the infective-state pool of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae (site 76 strain) Filipjev. Parasitology 114 (1997) 301-308
27. Brown I.M., and Gaugler R. Temperature and humidity influence emergence and survival of entomopathogenic nematodes. Nematologica 43 (1997) 363-375
28. Brown V.K., and Gange A.C. Insect herbivory below ground. Adv. Ecol. Res. 20 (1990) 1-58
29. Brust G.E. Augmentation of an endemic entomogenous nematode by agroecosystem manipulation for the control of a soil pest. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 36 (1991) 175-184
30. Cabanillas H.E., and Raulston J.R. Evaluation of the spatial pattern of Steinernema riobravis in corn plots. J. Nematol. 26 (1994) 25-31
31. Campbell J.F., Koppenhöfer A.M., Kaya H.K., and Chinnasri B. Are there temporarily non-infectious dauer stages in entomopathogenic nematode populations: a test of the phased infectivity hypothesis. Parasitology 118 (1999) 499-508
32. Campbell J.F., Lewis E., Yoder F., and Gaugler R. Entomopathogenic nematode (Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae) seasonal population dynamics and impact on insect populations in turfgrass. Biol. Control 5 (1995) 598-606
33. Campbell J.F., Lewis E., Yoder F., and Gaugler R. Entomopathogenic nematode (Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae) spatial distribution in turfgrass. Parasitology 113 (1996) 473-482
34. Campbell J.F., Orza G., Yoder F., Lewis E., and Gaugler R. Spatial and temporal distribution of endemic and released entomopathogenic nematode populations in turfgrass. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 86 (1998) 1-11
35. Choo H.Y., and Kaya H.K. Influence of soil texture and presence of roots on host finding by Heterorhabditis bacteriophora. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 58 (1991) 279-280
36. Coleman D.C., and Crossley D.A. Fundamentals of Soil Ecology (1996), Academic Press, San Diego, CA 205 pp
37. Connell J. Diversity and the coevolution of competitors, or the ghost of competition past. Oikos 35 (1980) 131-138
38. Cook R.J., and Baker K.F. The Nature and Practice of Biological Control of Plant Pathogens (1983), American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN 539 pp.
39. Dutilleul P., and Legendre P. Spatial heterogeneity against heteroscedasticity: an ecological paradigm versus a statistical concept. Oikos 66 (1993) 152-171
40. Duncan L.W., and McCoy C.W. Hydraulic lift increases herbivory by Diaprepes abbreviatus larvae and persistence of Steinernema riobrave in dry soil. J. Nematol. 33 (2001) 142-146
41. Duncan L.W., Dunn D.C., and McCoy C.W. Spatial patterns of entomopathogenic nematodes in microcosms: implications for laboratory experiments. J. Nematol. 28 (1996) 252-258
42. Duncan L.W., Genta J.G., Zellers J., Fares A., and Stansly P.A. Efficacy of Steinernema riobrave against larvae of Diaprepes abbreviatus in Florida soils of different texture. Nematropica 31 (2001) 130
43. Duncan L.W., Dunn D.C., Bague G., and Nguyen K. Competition between entomopathogenic and free-living bactivorous nematodes in larvae of the weevil Diaprepes abbreviatus. J. Nematol. 35 (2003) 187-193
44. Duncan L.W., Graham J.H., Dunn D.C., Zellers J., McCoy C.W., and Nguyen K. Incidence of endemic entomopathogenic nematodes following application of Steinernema riobrave for control of Diaprepes abbreviatus. J. Nematol. 35 (2003) 178-186
45. Efron D., Nestel D., and Glazer I. Spatial analysis of entomopathogenic nematodes and insect hosts in a citrus grove in a semi-arid region in Israel. Environ. Entomol. 30 (2001) 254-261
46. Ehlers R.-U., Deseö K.V., and Stackebrandt E. Identification of Steinernema spp. (Nematoda) and their symbiotic bacteria Xenorhabdus spp. from Italian and German soils. Nematologia 37 (1991) 360-366
47. Epsky N.D., and Capinera J.L. Influence of herbivore diet on the pathogenesis of Steinernema carpocapsae (Nematoda: Steinernematidae). Environ. Entomol. 23 (1994) 487-491
48. Epsky N.D., Walter D.E., and Capinera J.L. Potential role of nematophagous microarthropods as biotic mortality factors of entomopathogenic nematodes (Rhabditid, Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 81 (1988) 821-825
49. Ettema C.H. Soil nematode diversity: species coexistence and ecosystem function. J. Nematol. 30 (1998) 159-169
50. Fairbairn J.P., Fenton A., Norman R., and Hudson P.J. Re-assessing the infection strategies of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae (Rhabditidae; Steinernematidae). Parasitology 121 (2000) 211-216
51. Fan X., and Hominick W.M. Efficiency of the Galleria (wax moth) baiting technique for recovering infective stages of entomopathogenic rhabditids (Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae) from sand and soil. Rev. Nematol. 14 (1991) 381-387
52. Fenton A., Norman R., Fairbairn J.P., and Hudson P.J. Modeling the efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes in the regulation of invertebrate pests in glasshouse crops. J. Appl. Ecol. 37 (2000) 309-320
53. Fenton A., Norman R., Fairbairn J.P., and Hudson P.J. Evaluating the efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes for the biological control of crop pests: a nonequilibrium approach. Am. Nat. 158 (2001) 408-425
54. Fenton A., Gwynn R.L., Gupta A., Norman R., Fairbairn J.P., and Hudson P.J. Optimal application strategies for entomopathogenic nematodes: integrating theoretical and empirical approaches. J. Appl. Ecol. 39 (2002) 481-492
55. Forst S., and Clarke D. Bacteria-nematode symbiosis. In: Gaugler R. (Ed). Entomopathogenic Nematology (2002), CABI, New York, NY 57-77
56. Garcia Del Pino F., and Palomo A. Natural occurrence of entomopathogenic nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae) in Spanish soils. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 68 (1996) 84-90
57. Gaugler R., and Han R. Production technology. In: Gaugler R. (Ed). Entomopathogenic Nematology (2002), CABI, New York, NY 289-310
58. Gaugler R., and Kaya H.K. Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Biological Control (1990), CRC, Boca Raton, FL 365 pp.
59. Gaugler R., Lewis E.E., and Stuart R.J. Ecology in the service of biological control: the case of entomopathogenic nematodes. Oecologia 109 (1997) 483-489
60. Gaugler R., Wang Y., and Campbell J.F. Aggressive and evasive behaviors in Popillia japonica (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) larvae: defences against entomopathogenic nematode attack. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 64 (1994) 193-199
61. Georgis R., and Poinar Jr. G.O. Nematodes as bioinsecticides in turf and ornamentals. In: Leslie A.R. (Ed). Handbook of Integrated Pest Management for Turf and Ornamentals (1994), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL 477-489
62. Ghally S.E. Some factors affecting the activity and pathogenicity of Heterorhabditis heliothidis and Steinernema carpocapsae nematodes. J. Egypt. Soc. Parasitol. 25 (1995) 125-135
63. Gilmore S.K., and Potter D.A. Potential role of collembola as biotic mortality agents for entomopathogenic nematodes. Pedobiologia 37 (1993) 30-38
64. Gilmore S.K., and Raffensperger E.M. Foods ingested by Tomocerus spp. (Collembola, Entomobryidae), in relation to habitat. Pedobiologia 10 (1970) 135-140
65. Glazer I. Effects of infected insects on secondary invasion of steinernematid entomopathogenic nematodes. Parasitology 114 (1997) 597-604
66. Glazer I. Survival biology. In: Gaugler R. (Ed). Entomopathogenic Nematology (2002), CABI, Wallingford, UK 169-187
67. Glazer I., Gaugler R., and Segal D. Genetics of the nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora HP88 strain: the diversity of beneficial traits. J. Nematol. 23 (1991) 324-333
68. Glazer I., Kozodoi E., Salame L., and Nestel D. Spatial and temporal occurrence of natural populations of Heterorhabditis spp. (Nematoda: Rhabditida) in a semiarid region. Biol. Control 6 (1996) 130-136
69. Grant J.A., and Villani M.G. Soil moisture effects on entomopathogenic nematodes. Environ. Entomol. 32 (2003) 80-87
70. Grewal P.S., Selvan S., and Gaugler R. Thermal adaptation of entomopathogenic nematodes: niche breadth for infection, establishment, and reproduction. J. Thermal Biol. 19 (1994) 245-253
71. Grewal P.S., Gaugler R., and Georgis R. Predictors of foraging strategy in entomopathogenic nematodes. In: Griffen C.T., Gwynn R.L., and Masson J.P. (Eds). Ecology and Transmission Strategies of Entomopathogenic Nematodes (1995), European Commission, Luxembourg 95-104
72. Grewal S.K., Grewal P.S., and Gaugler R. Endophytes of fescue grasses enhance susceptibility of Popillia japonica larvae to an entomopathogenic nematode. Entomol. Exper. Appl. 74 (1995) 219-224
73. Grewal P.S., Gaugler R., and Shupe C. Rapid changes in thermal sensitivity of entomopathogenic nematodes in response to selection at temperature extremes. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 68 (1996) 65-73
74. Grewal P.S., Martin W.R., Miller R.W., and Lewis E.E. Suppression of plant-parasitic nematode populations in turfgrass by application of entomopathogenic nematodes. Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 7 (1997) 393-399
75. Grewal P.S., Selvan S., Lewis E.E., and Gaugler R. Male insect-parasitic nematodes: a colonizing sex. Experientia 49 (1993) 605-608
76. Grewal P.S., Wang X., and Taylor R.A.J. Dauer juvenile longevity and stress tolerance in natural populations of an entomopathogenic nematode: is there a relationship?. Int. J. Parasitol. 32 (2002) 717-725
77. Griffin C.T. Temperature responses of entomopathogenic nematodes: implications for the success of biological control programmes. In: Bedding R., Akhurst R., and Kaya H. (Eds). Nematodes and the Biological Control of Insects (1993), CSIRO, East Melbourne, Australia 15-126
78. Hanski I. Metapopulation dynamics. Nature 396 (1998) 41-49
79. Hanski I. Habitat connectivity, habitat continuity, and metapopulations in dynamic landscapes. Oikos 87 (1999) 209-219
80. Hanski I. Metapopulation Ecology (1999), Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK 272 pp.
81. Hanski I. Spatially realistic theory of metapopulation ecology. Naturwissenschaften 88 (2001) 372-381
82. Hanski I., and Simberloff D. The metapopulation approach, its history, conceptual domain and application to conservation. In: Hanski I., and Gilpin M.E. (Eds). Metapopulation Biology: Ecology, Genetics, and Evolution (1997), Academic Press, London, UK 5-26
83. Harrison S., and Hastings A. Genetic and evolutionary consequences of metapopulation structure. Trends Ecol. Evol. 11 (1996) 180-183
84. Harrison S., and Taylor A.D. Empirical evidence for metapopulation dynamics. In: Hanski I., and Gilpin M.E. (Eds). Metapopulation Biology: Ecology, Genetics, and Evolution (1997), Academic Press, London, UK 27-42
85. Hassell M.P. The Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Host-Parasitoid Interactions (2000), Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK 200 pp.
86. Hassell M.P., and Varley G.C. New inductive population model for insect parasites and its bearing on biological control. Nature 223 (1969) 1133-1136
87. Hawksworth D.L. The Biodiversity of Microorganisms and Invertebrates: Its Role in Sustainable Agriculture (1991), CAB International, Wallingford, UK 302 pp.
88. Hay D.B., and Fenlon J.S. A modified binomial model that describes the infection dynamics of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae (Steinernematidae; Nematoda). Parasitology 111 (1997) 627-633
89. Hillel P.M. Fundamentals of Soil Physics (1982), Academic, New York 364 pp.
90. Hoitink H.A.J., and Fahy P.C. Basis for the control of soilborne plant pathogens with composts. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol. 24 (1986) 93-114
91. Holling C.S. Some characteristics of simple types of predation and parasitism. Can. Entomol. 91 (1959) 385-398
92. Hominick W.M. Entomopathogenic nematology. In: Gaugler R. (Ed). Biogeography (2002), CABI, Wallingford, UK 115-143
93. Hominick W.M., and Briscoe B.R. Survey of 15 sites over 28 months for entomopathogenic nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae). Parasitology 100 (1990) 289-294
94. Hominick W.M., and Briscoe B.R. Occurrence of entomopathogenic nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae) in British soils. Parasitology 100 (1990) 295-302
95. Hominick W.M., and Reid A.P. Perspectives on entomopathogenic nematology. In: Gaugler R., and Kaya H.K. (Eds). Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Biological Control (1990), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL 327-345
96. Hsiao W.F., and All J.N. Effect of animal manure on the survival and pathogenicity of the entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema carpocapsae. Zhonghua Kunchong 17 (1997) 53-65
97. Hsiao W.F., and All J.N. Survey of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) natural populations and its dispersal in the field. Chin. J. Entomol. 18 (1998) 39-49
98. Hudson W.G., and Nguyen K.B. Effects of soil moisture, exposure time, nematode age, and nematode density on laboratory infection of Scapteriscus vicinus and Scapteriscus acletus (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae) by Neoaplectana sp. (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae). Environ. Entomol. 18 (1989) 719-722
99. Hummel R., Walgenbach J.F., Barbercheck M.E., Kennedy G.G., Hoyt G.D., and Arellano C. Effects of production practices on soil-borne entomopathogens in western North Carolina vegetable systems. Environ. Entomol. 31 (2002) 84-91
100. Ishibashi N., and Kondo E. Steinernema feltiae (DD-136) and S. glaseri: persistence in soil and bark compost and their influence on native nematodes. J. Nematol. 18 (1986) 310-316
101. Ishibashi N., and Kondo E. Dynamics of the entomogenous nematode Steinernema feltiae applied to soil with and without nematicide treatment. J. Nematol. 19 (1987) 404-412
102. Jagdale G.B., and Gordon R. Effect of propagation temperatures on temperature tolerances of entomopathogenic nematodes. Fundam. Appl. Nematol. 21 (1998) 177-183
103. Jagdale G.B., Somasekhar N., Grewal P.S., and Klein M.G. Suppression of plant-parasitic nematodes by application of live and dead infective juveniles of an entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema carpocapsae, on boxwood (Buxus spp.). Biol. Control 24 (2002) 42-49
104. Jaworska M. Investigations on the possibility of using entomophilic nematodes in reduction of Cephalcia abietis (L.) (Hym., Pamphiliidae) population. Polskie Pismo Entomol. 62 (1993) 201-213
105. Kaya H.K. Soil ecology. In: Gaugler R., and Kaya H.K. (Eds). Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Biological Control (1990), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL 93-115
106. Kaya H.K. Natural enemies and other antagonists. In: Gaugler R. (Ed). Entomopathogenic Nematology (2002), CABI, Wallingford, UK 189-203
107. Kaya H.K., and Brayton M.A. Interaction between Neoaplectana carpocapsae and a granulosis virus of the armyworm Pseudaletia unipuncta. J. Nematol. 10 (1978) 350-354
108. Kaya H.K., and Burlando T.M. Development of Steinernema feltiae (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) in diseased insect hosts. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 53 (1989) 164-168
109. Kaya H.K., and Gaugler R. Entomopathogenic nematodes. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 38 (1993) 181-206
110. Kaya H.K., and Koppenhöfer A.M. Effects of microbial and other antagonistic organisms and competition on entomopathogenic nematodes. Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 6 (1996) 357-371
111. Kaya H.K., Bedding R.A., and Akhurst R.J. An overview of insect-parasitic and entomopathogenic nematodes. In: Bedding R., Akhurst R., and Kaya H. (Eds). Nematodes and the Biological Control of Insect Pests (1993), CSIRO, East Melbourne, Australia 1-10
112. Kondo E. Studies on the infectivity and propagation of entomogenous nematodes, Steinernema spp. (Rhabdititida: Steinernematidae) in the common cutworm, Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Bull. Fac. Agric. Saga Univ. 67 (1989) 1-87
113. Koppenhöfer A.M., and Kaya H.K. Coexistence of two steinernematid nematode species (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) in the presence of two host species. Appl. Soil Ecol. 4 (1996) 221-230
114. Koppenhöfer A.M., and Kaya H.K. Coexistence of entomopathogenic nematode species (Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae) with different foraging behavior. Fundam. Appl. Nematol. 19 (1996) 175-183
115. Koppenhöfer A.M., and Kaya H.K. Additive and synergistic interaction between entomopathogenic nematodes and Bacillus thuringiensis for scarab grub control. Biol. Control 8 (1997) 131-137
116. Koppenhöfer A.M., Kaya H.K., and Taormino S. Infectivity of entomopathogenic nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) at different soil depths and moistures. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 65 (1995) 193-199
117. Koppenhöfer A.M., Kaya H.K., Shanmugam S., and Wood G.L. Interspecific competition between steinernematid nematodes within an insect host. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 66 (1995) 99-103
118. Koppenhöfer A.M., Baur M.E., Stock S.P., Choo H.Y., Chinnasri B., and Kaya H.K. Survival of entomopathogenic nematodes within host cadavers in dry soil. Appl. Soil Ecol. 6 (1997) 231-240
119. Koppenhöfer A.M., Campbell J.F., Kaya H.K., and Gaugler R. Estimation of entomopathogenic nematode population density in soil by correlation between bait insect mortality and nematode penetration. Fundam. Appl. Nematol. 21 (1998) 95-102
120. Koppenhöfer A.M., Choo H.Y., Kaya H.K., Lee D.W., and Gelernter W.D. Increased field and greenhouse efficacy against scarab grubs with a combination of an entomopathogenic nematode and Bacillus thuringiensis. Biol. Control 14 (1999) 37-44
121. Kung S.P., Gaugler R., and Kaya H.K. Soil type and entomopathogenic nematode persistence. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 55 (1990) 401-406
122. Kung S.P., Gaugler R., and Kaya H.K. Influence of soil pH and oxygen on persistence of Steinernema spp. J. Nematol. 22 (1990) 440-445
123. Kung S.P., Gaugler R., and Kaya H.K. Effects of soil temperature, moisture, and relative humidity on entomopathogenic nematode persistence. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 57 (1991) 242-249
124. Lacey L.A., Kaya H.K., and Bettencourt R. Dispersal of Steinernema glaseri (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) in adult Japanese beetles, Popillia japonica (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Biocontr. Sci. Technol. 5 (1995) 121-130
125. Lawrence, J.L., 2004. Conservation of insect natural enemies in heterogeneous vegetable landscapes. Ph.D. Dissertation. The Ohio State University. 166 pp.
126. Letourneau D.K. Conservation biological control: lessons for conserving natural enemies. In: Barbosa P. (Ed). Conservation Biological Control (1998), Academic Press, New York, NY 9-38
127. Lewis E.E., and Gaugler R. Entomopathogenic nematode (Rhabdita: Steinernematidae) sex ratio relates to foraging strategy. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 64 (1994) 238-242
128. Lewis E.E., Campbell J.F., and Gaugler R. A conservation approach to using entomopathogenic nematodes in turf and landscapes. In: Barbosa P. (Ed). Conservation Biological Control (1998), Academic Press, New York, NY 235-254
129. Lewis E.E., Grewal P.S., and Sardanelli S. Interactions between Steinernema feltiae-Xenorhabdus bovienii insect pathogen complex and root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita. Biol. Control 21 (2001) 55-62
130. Mason J.M., and Hominick W.M. The effect of temperature on infection, development and reproduction of heterorhabditids. J. Helminthol. 69 (1995) 337-345
131. May R.M. Host-parasitoid systems in patchy environments: a phenomenological model. J. Anim. Ecol. 47 (1978) 833-843
132. Maynard Smith J. Evolutionary Genetics (1989), Oxford University Press, New York pp. 325
133. McCauley D.E. Genetic consequences of local population extinction and recolonization. Trends Ecol. Evol. 6 (1991) 5-8
134. McCauley D.E. Effects of population dynamics on genetics in mosaic landscapes. In: Hansson L., Fahrig L., and Merriam G. (Eds). Mosaic Landscapes and Ecological Processes (1995), Chapman and Hall, London, UK 178-198
135. Millar L.C., and Barbercheck M.E. Interaction between endemic and introduced entomopathogenic nematodes in conventional-till and no-till corn. Biol. Control 22 (2001) 235-245
136. Millar L.C., and Barbercheck M.E. Effects of tillage practices on entomopathogenic nematodes in a corn agroecosystem. Biol. Control 25 (2002) 1-11
137. Mrácek Z., and Webster J.M. Survey of Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae (Rhabditida: Nematoda) in western Canada. J. Nematol. 25 (1993) 710-717
138. Mrácek Z., Becvár S., and Kindlmann P. Survey of entomopathogenic nematodes from the families Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae (Nematoda: Rhabditida) in the Czech Republic. Folia Parasitol. 46 (1999) 145-148
139. Neher D., and Barbercheck M.E. Diversity and function of soil mesofauna. In: Collins W., and Qualset C.O. (Eds). The Biodiversity of Agroecosystems (1999), CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, FL 27-47
140. Nguyen K.B., and Smart Jr. G.C. Morphometrics of infective juveniles of Steinernema spp. and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora (Nematoda: Rhabditida). J. Nematol. 27 (1995) 206-212
141. Nicholson A.J., and Bailey V.A. The balance of animal populations. Part 1. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1935 (1935) 551-598
142. Nickle W.R. Plant and Insect Nematodes (1984), Marcel Decker, New York, NY 925 pp.
143. Peters A. The natural host range of Steinernema and Heterorhabditis spp., their impact on insect populations. Biol. Control Sci. Technol. 6 (1996) 389-402
144. Peters A., and Ehlers R.-U. Susceptibility of leather jackets (Tipula paludosa and Tipula oleracea; Tipulidae; Nematocera) to the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 63 (1994) 163-171
145. Pianka E.P. Evolutionary Ecology. sixth edition (1999), Harper and Row, New York, NY 512 pp.
146. Poinar G.O. Biology and taxonomy of Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae. In: Gaugler R., and Kaya H.K. (Eds). Entomopathogenic Nematodes in Biological Control (1990), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL 23-61
147. Polis G.A., Anderson W.B., and Holt R.D. Toward an integration of landscape and food web ecology: the dynamics of spatially subsidized food webs. Ann. Ecol. Syst. 28 (1997) 289-316
148. Portillo-Aguilar C., Villani M.G., Tauber M.J., Tauber C.A., and Nyrop J.P. Entomopathogenic nematode (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae) response to soil texture and bulk density. Environ. Entomol. 28 (1999) 1021-1035
149. Preisser E.L. Field evidence for a rapidly cascading underground food web. Ecology 84 (2003) 869-874
150. Qiu, L., Bedding, R., 1999. The relationship between energy metabolism and survival of the infective juveniles of Steinernema carpocapsae under unstressed-aerobic and anaerobic conditions. In: Glazer, I., Richardson, P., Boemare, N., Coudert, F. (Eds.), Survival Strategies of Entomopathogenic Nematodes. EUR 18855 EN Report, pp. 149-156.
151. Reid A.P., and Hominick W.M. Restriction fragment length polymorphisms within the ribosomal DNA repeat unit of British entomopathogenic nematodes (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae). Parasitology 105 (1992) 317-323
152. Sayre R.M., and Walter D.E. Factors affecting the efficacy of natural enemies of nematodes. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol. 29 (1991) 149-166
153. Selvan S., Campbell J.F., and Gaugler R. Density-dependent effects on entomopathogenic nematodes (Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae) within an insect host. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 62 (1993) 278-284
154. Selvan S., Gaugler R., and Grewal P.S. Water content and fatty acid composition of infective juvenile entomopathogenic nematodes during storage. J. Parasitol. 79 (1993) 510-516
155. Selvan S., Gaugler R., and Lewis E.E. Biochemical energy reserves of entomopathogenic nematodes. J. Parasitol. 79 (1993) 167-172
156. Shapiro D.I., Berry E.C., and Lewis L.C. Interactions between nematodes and earthworms: enhanced dispersal of Steinernema carpocapsae. J. Nematol. 25 (1993) 189-192
157. Shapiro D.I., Lewis L.C., Obrycki J.J., and Abbas M. Effects of fertilizers on suppression of black cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon) damage with Steinernema carpocapsae. J. Nematol. 31 (1999) 690-693
158. Shapiro D.I., Obrycki J.J., Lewis L.C., and Jackson J.J. Effects of crop residue on the persistence of Steinernema carpocapsae. J. Nematol. 31 (1999) 517-519
159. Shapiro D.I., McCoy C.W., Fares A., Obreza T., and Dou H. Effects of soil type on virulence and persistence of entomopathogenic nematodes in relation to control of Diaprepes abbreviatus. Environ. Entomol. 29 (2000) 1083-1087
160. Shapiro-Ilan D.I., Gouge D.H., and Koppenhöfer A.M. Factors affecting commercial success: case studies in cotton, turf and citrus. In: Gaugler R. (Ed). Entomopathogenic Nematology (2002), CABI, Wallingford, UK 333-355
161. Sharpe W.E., and Drohan J.R. The Effects of Acid Deposition on Pennsylvania's Forests (1999), Environmental Resources Research Institute, University Park, PA 266 pp.
162. Small R.W. A review of the prey of predatory soil nematodes. Pedobiologia 30 (1987) 179-206
163. Smith K. Factors affecting efficacy. In: Polavarapu S. (Ed). Proceedings of Workshop on the Optimal Use of Insecticidal Nematodes in Pest Management (1999), Rutgers University, Brunswick, NJ 37-46 August 28-30, 1999
164. Somasekhar N., Grewal P.S., DeNardo E.A.B., and Stinner B.R. Non-target effects of entomopathogenic nematodes on the soil nematode community. J. Appl. Ecol. 39 (2002) 735-744
165. Spiridonov S.E., and Voronov D.A. Small scale distribution of Steinernema feltiae juveniles in cultivated soil. In: Griffin C.T., Gwynn R.L., and Masson J.P. (Eds). Ecology and Transmission Strategies of Entomopathogenic Nematodes (1995), European Commission, Luxembourg 36-41
166. Stinner B.R., McCartney D.A., and Van Doren Jr. D.M. Soil and foliage arthropod communities in conventional, reduced and no-tillage corn (maize, Zea mays L.) systems: a comparison after 20 years of continuous cropping. Soil Tillage Res. 11 (1988) 147-158
167. Stinner B.R., and House G.J. Arthropods and other invertebrates in conservation-tillage agriculture. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 35 (1990) 299-318
168. Stirling G.R. Biological Control of Plant Parasitic Nematodes (1991), CAB International, Wallingford, UK 282 pp.
169. Strong D.R. Populations of entomopathogenic nematodes in foodwebs. In: Gaugler R. (Ed). Entomopathogenic Nematology (2002), CABI, Wallingford, UK 225-240
170. Strong D.R., Kaya H.K., Whipple A.V., Child A.L., Kraig S., Bondonno M., Dyer K., and Maron J.L. Entomopathogenic nematodes: natural enemies of root-feeding caterpillars on bush lupine. Oecologia 108 (1996) 167-173
171. Strong D.R., Maron J.L., Connors P.G., Whipple A., Harrison S., and Jeffries R.L. High mortality, fluctuation in numbers, and heavy subterranean insect herbivory in bush lupine, Lupinus arboreus. Oecologia 104 (1995) 85-92
172. Strong D.R., Whipple A.V., Child A.L., and Dennis B. Model selection for a subterranean trophic cascade: root-feeding caterpillars and entomopathogenic nematodes. Ecology 80 (1999) 2750-2761
173. Stuart R.J., and Gaugler R. Patchiness in populations of entomopathogenic nematodes. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 64 (1994) 39-45
174. Stuart R.J., and Gaugler R. Genetic adaptation and founder effect in laboratory populations of the entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema glaseri. Can. J. Zool. 74 (1996) 164-170
175. Stuart R.J., Lewis E.E., and Gaugler R. Selection alters the pattern of emergence from the host cadaver in the entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema glaseri. Parasitology 113 (1996) 183-189
176. Stuart R.J., Abu Hatab M., and Gaugler R. Sex ratio and the infection process in entomopathogenic nematodes: are males the colonizing sex?. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 72 (1998) 288-295
177. Stuart R.J., Shapiro-Ilan D.I., James R.R., Nguyen K.B., and McCoy C.W. Virulence of new and mixed strains of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema riobrave to larvae of the citrus root weevil, Diaprepes abbreviatus. Biol. Control 24 (2004) 199-206
178. Taylor, R.A.J., 1999. Sampling entomopathogenic nematodes and measuring their spatial distribution. In: Gwynn, R.L., Smits, P.H., Griffin, C., Ehlers, R.-U., Boemare, N., Masson, J.-P. (Eds.), Application and Persistence of Entomopathogenic Nematodes. European Commission (EUR 18873 EN). pp. 43-60.
179. Thurston G.S., Ni Y., and Kaya H.K. Influence of salinity on survival and infectivity of entomopathogenic nematodes. J. Nematol. 26 (1994) 345-351
180. Timper P., and Kaya H.K. Impact of a nematode-parasitic fungus on the effectiveness of entomogenous nematodes. J. Nematol. 24 (1992) 1-8
181. Timper P., Kaya H.K., and Gaugler R. Dispersal of the entomogenous nematode Steinernema feltiae (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) by infected adult insects. Environ. Entomol. 17 (1988) 546-550
182. Timper P., Kaya H.K., and Jaffee B.A. Survival of entomogenous nematodes in soil infested with the nematode-parasitic fungus Hirsutella rhossiliensis (Deuteromycotina: Hyphomycetes). Biol. Control 1 (1991) 42-50
183. Townsend M.L., Johnson D.T., and Steinkraus D.C. Laboratory studies of the interactions of environmental conditions on the susceptibility of green June beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) grubs to entomopathogenic nematodes. J. Entomol. Sci. 33 (1998) 40-48
184. Vandermeer J., and Perfecto I. Breakfast of Biodiversity: The Truth About Rain Forest Destruction (1995), Food First Books, Oakland, CA 185 pp
185. Van Der Werf W., Smits P.H., Downes M., and Griffin C. Concepts and prospects for modeling the efficacy and ecology of entomopathogenic nematodes. In: Griffin C.T., Gwynn R.L., and Masson J.P. (Eds). Ecology and Transmission Strategies of Entomopathogenic Nematodes (1995), European Commission, Luxembourg 42-51
186. Wall D., and Moore J.C. Interactions underground: soil biodiversity, mutualism, and ecosystem processes. BioScience 49 (1999) 109-117
187. Wallace H.R. Abiotic influences in the soil environment. In: Zuckerman B.M., Mai W.F., and Rohde R.A. (Eds). Plant Parasitic Nematodes vol. 1 (1971), Academic Press, New York, NY 257-280
188. Walter D.E. Trophic behavior of 'mycophagous' microarthropods. Ecology 68 (1987) 226-229
189. Walter D.E. Life history, trophic behaviour and description of Gamasellodes vermivorax n. sp. (Mesostigmatoa: Ascidae), a predator of nematodes and arthropods in semiarid grassland soils. Can. J. Zool. 65 (1987) 1689-1695
190. Walter D.E. Predation and mycophagy by endostigmatid mites (Acariformes: Prostigmata). Exper. Appl. Acarol. 4 (1988) 159-166
191. Walter D.E. Nematophagy by soil arthropods from the shortgrass steppe, Chihauahuan Desert and Rocky Mountains of the central United States. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 24 (1988) 307-316
192. Walter D.E., Hudgens R.A., and Freckman D.W. Consumption of nematodes by fungivorous mites, Tyrophagus spp. (Acarina: Astigmata: Acaridae). Oecologia 70 (1986) 357-361
193. Walter D.E., Hunt H.W., and Elliot E.T. The influence of prey type on the development and reproduction of some predatory soil mites. Pedobiologia 30 (1987) 419-424
194. Walter D.E., Moore J.C., and Loring S.J. Symphylella sp. (Symphyla: Scolopendrellidae) predators of arthropods and nematodes in grassland soils. Pedobiologia 33 (1989) 113-116
195. Wang X., and Grewal P.S. Rapid genetic deterioration of environmental tolerance and reproductive potential of an entomopathogenic nematode during laboratory maintenance. Biol. Control 23 (2002) 71-78
196. Wang Y., Gaugler R., and Cui L. Variation in immune response of Popillia japonica and Acheta domesticus to Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and Steinernema species. J. Nematol. 26 (1994) 11-18
197. Westerman P.R. Penetration of the entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis spp. into host insects at 9 and 20 degrees C. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 72 (1998) 197-205
198. Westerman P.R., and Van der Werf W. Exploring the scope for improving biocontrol of black vine weevil, Otiorhynchus sulcatus, with Heterorhabditis spp. at low temperatures: a simulation study. Agric. Syst. 57 (1998) 43-63
199. Wiens J.A., Schooley R.L., and Weeks Jr. R.D. Patchy landscapes and animal movements: do beetles percolate?. Oikos 78 (1997) 257-264
200. Wilson M.J., Lewis E.E., Yoder F., and Gaugler R. Application pattern and persistence of the entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora. Biol. Control 26 (2003) 180-188
201. Windels C.E. Altering community balance: organic amendments, selection pressures, and biological control. In: Andow D.A., Ragsdale D.W., and Nyvall R.F. (Eds). Ecological Interactions in Biological Control (1997), Westview Press, Boulder, CO 282-300
202. With K.A., Pavuk D.M., Worchuck J.L., Oates R.K., and Fisher J.L. Threshold effects of landscape structure on biological control in agroecosystems. Ecol. Appl. 12 (2002) 52-65
203. Wootton J.T. The nature and consequences of indirect effects in ecological communities. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 25 (1994) 443-466
204. Zervos S., Johnson S.C., and Webster J.M. Effect of temperature and inoculum size on reproduction and development of Heterorhabditis heliothidis and Steinernema glaseri (Nematoda: Rhabditoidea) in Galleria mellonella. Can. J. Zool. 69 (1991) 1261-1264
205. Zhou X., Kaya H.K., Heungens K., and Goodrich-Blair H. Response of ants to a deterrent factor(s) produced by the symbiotic bacteria of entomopathogenic nematodes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68 (2002) 6202-6209