LDL-cholesterol lowering or HDL-cholesterol raising for cardiovascular prevention. A lesson from cholesterol turnover studies and others

Atherosclerosis

Volumn 186, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 1-11

  Sirtori, Cesare R ^a   Fumagalli, Remo ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MILAN   (Italy)

Author keywords

Cholesterol pool sizes; Fibrates; HDL C; HDL mimetics; LDL C; Nicotinic acid; Statins

Indexed keywords

APOLIPOPROTEIN A1; ATORVASTATIN; ETC 216; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; LIPOPROTEIN; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; MEVINOLIN; NICOTINIC ACID; TORCETRAPIB;

CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHOLESTEROL TRANSPORT; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; CORRELATIONAL STUDY; FAMILIAL HYPERLIPEMIA; HEART PROTECTION; HUMAN; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; LIPOPROTEIN DEFICIENCY; NONHUMAN; PLASMA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TISSUE; TURNOVER TIME; VASCULAR DISEASE;

ANTICHOLESTEREMIC AGENTS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CHOLESTEROL, HDL; CHOLESTEROL, LDL; HUMANS; PROGNOSIS;

EID: 33645850702     PISSN: 00219150     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2005.10.024     Document Type: Review

References (89)

1. Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study Group. Randomized trial of cholesterol lowering in 4444 patients with coronary heart disease: the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S). Lancet 344 (1994) 1383-1389
2. Sacks F.M., Pfeffer M.A., Moye L.A., et al. The effect of pravastatin on coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels. Cholesterol and Recurrent Events Trial Investigators. N Engl J Med 335 (1996) 1001-1009
3. LIPID Study Group. Prevention of cardiovascular events and death with pravastatin in patients with coronary heart disease and a broad range of initial cholesterol levels. N Engl J Med 339 (1998) 1349-1357
4. West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study Group. Influence of pravastatin and plasma lipids on clinical events in the West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study (WOSCOPS). Circulation 97 (1998) 1440-1445
5. Robins SJ, Collins D, Wittes JT, et al., VA-HIT Study Group. Veterans Affairs High-Density Lipoprotein Intervention Trial. Relation of gemfibrozil treatment and lipid levels with major coronary events: VA-HIT: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2001;285:1585-91.
6. Chapman M.J., Assmann G., Fruchart J.-C., et al., on behalf of the European Consensus Panel on HDL-C. Raising high-density lipoprotein cholesterol with reduction of cardiovascular risk: the role of nicotinic acid-a position paper developed by the European Consensus Panel on HDL-C. Curr Med Res Opin 20 (2004) 1253-1268
7. Taylor A.J., Sullenberger L.E., Lee H.J., Lee J.K., and Grace K.A. Arterial Biology for the Investigation of the Treatment Effects of Reducing Cholesterol (ARBITER 2): a double-blind, placebo-controlled study of extended-release niacin on atherosclerosis progression in secondary prevention patients treated with statins. Circulation 110 (2004) 3512-3517
8. Chiesa G., Monteggia E., Marchesi M., et al. Recombinant apolipoprotein A-I Milano infusion into rabbit carotid artery rapidly removes lipid from fatty streaks. Circ Res 90 (2002) 974-980
9. Nissen S.E., Tsunoda T., Tuzcu E.M., et al. Effect of recombinant ApoA-I Milano on coronary atherosclerosis in patients with acute coronary syndromes: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 290 (2003) 2292-2300
10. Callahan III A.S. Vascular pleiotropy of statins: clinical evidence and biochemical mechanisms. Curr Atheroscler Rep 5 (2003) 33-37
11. Undas A., Celinska-Lowenhoff M., Kaczor M., and Musial J. New nonlipid effects of statins and their clinical relevance in cardiovascular disease. Thromb Haemost 91 (2004) 1065-1077
12. Ridker P.M., Cannon C.P., Morrow D., et al. Pravastatin or Atorvastatin Evaluation and Infection Therapy-Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction 22 (PROVE IT-TIMI 22) Investigators. C-reactive protein levels and outcomes after statin therapy. N Engl J Med 352 (2005) 20-28
13. Ridker P.M., Morrow D.A., Rose L.M., et al. Relative efficacy of atorvastatin 80 mg and pravastatin 40 mg in achieving the dual goals of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol <70 mg/dl and C-reactive protein <2 mg/l: an analysis of the PROVE-IT TIMI-22 trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 45 (2005) 1644-1648
14. Ridker P.M. High-sensitivity C-reactive protein, inflammation, and cardiovascular risk: from concept to clinical practice to clinical benefit. Am Heart J 148 1 Suppl. (2004) S19-S26
15. Sampietro T., Bigazzi F., Dal Pino B., et al. Increased plasma C-reactive protein in familial hypoalphalipoproteinemia: a proinflammatory condition?. Circulation 105 (2002) 11-14
16. Mostaza J.M., Camino N., Gerique J.G., et al. C-reactive protein levels and prevalence of chronic infections in subjects with hypoalphalipoproteinemia. Metabolism 54 (2005) 33-37
17. Wang T.D., Chen W.J., Lin J.W., et al. Efficacy of fenofibrate and simvastatin on endothelial function and inflammatory markers in patients with combined hyperlipidemia: relations with baseline lipid profiles. Atherosclerosis 170 2 (2003) 315-323
18. Chobanian A.V., and Hollander W. Body cholesterol metabolism in man. J Clin Invest 41 (1962) 1732-1737
19. Falk E., Shah P.K., and Fuster V. Coronary plaque disruption. Circulation 92 (1995) 657-671
20. Dollar A.L., Kragel A.H., Fernicola D.J., Waclawiw M.A., and Roberts W.C. Composition of atherosclerosis plaques in coronary arteries in women <40 years of age with fatal coronary artery disease and implications for plaque reversibility. Am J Cardiol 67 (1991) 1223-1227
21. Kellner-Weibel G., Jerome W.G., Small D.M., et al. Effects of intracellular free cholesterol accumulation on macrophage viability. A model of foam cell death. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 18 (1998) 423-431
22. Steinberg D. Thematic review series: the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. An interpretive history of the cholesterol controversy: Part I. J Lipid Res 45 (2004) 1583-1593
23. Steinberg D. The cholesterol controversy is over. Why did it take so long?. Circulation 80 (1989) 1070-1078
24. Gordon T., Castelli W.P., Hjortland M.C., Kannel W.B., and Dawber T.R. High density lipoprotein as a protective factor against coronary heart disease. Am J Med 62 (1977) 707-714
25. Sharrett A.R., Ballantyne C.M., Coady S.A., et al. Coronary heart disease prediction from lipoprotein cholesterol levels, triglycerides, lipoprotein(a), apolipoprotein A-I and B, and HDL density subfractions. Circulation 104 (2001) 1108-1113
26. Olsson A.G., Schwartz G.G., Szarek M., et al. High-density lipoprotein, but not low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels influence short-term prognosis after acute coronary syndrome: results from the MIRACL trial. Eur Heart J 26 (2005) 890-896
27. van Lennep J.E., Westerveld H.T., van Lennep H.W., et al. Apolipoprotein concentrations during treatment and recurrent coronary artery disease events. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 20 (2000) 2408-2413
28. Ridker P.M., Rifai N., Cook N.R., Bradwin G., and Buring J.E. Non-HDL cholesterol, apolipoproteins A-I and B100, standard lipid measures, lipid ratios, and CRP as risk factors for cardiovascular disease in women. JAMA 294 (2005) 326-333
29. Genest J.J., McNamara J.R., Salem D.N., and Schaefer E.J. Prevalence of risk factors in men with premature coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol 67 (1991) 1185-1199
30. Hausmann D., Johnson J.A., Sudhir K., et al. Angiographically silent atherosclerosis detected by intravascular ultrasound in patients with familial hypercholesterolemia and familial combined hyperlipidemia: correlation with high density lipoproteins. J Am Coll Cardiol 27 (1996) 1562-1570
31. Baldassarre D., Amato M., Pustina L., et al. Increased carotid artery intima-media thickness in subjects with primary hypoalphalipoproteinemia. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 22 (2002) 317-322
32. O'Connell B.J., and Genest Jr. J. High-density lipoproteins and endothelial function. Circulation 104 (2001) 1978-1983
33. Spieker L.E., Sudano I., Hurlimann D., et al. High-density lipoprotein restores endothelial function in hypercholesterolemic men. Circulation 105 (2002) 1399-1402
34. Bisoendial R.J., Hovingh G.K., Levels J.H., et al. Restoration of endothelial function by increasing high-density lipoprotein in subjects with isolated low high-density lipoprotein. Circulation 107 (2003) 2944-2948
35. Calabresi L., Gomaraschi M., and Franceschini G. Endothelial protection by high-density lipoproteins: from bench to bedside. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 23 (2003) 1724-1731
36. Calabresi L., Gomaraschi M., Villa B., et al. Elevated soluble cellular adhesion molecules in subjects with low HDL-cholesterol. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 22 (2002) 656-661
37. Whitney E.J., Krasuski R.A., Personius B.E., et al. A randomized trial of a strategy for increasing high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels: effects on progression of coronary heart disease and clinical events. Ann Intern Med 142 (2005) 95-104
38. Goodman D.S., and Noble R.P. Turnover of plasma cholesterol in man. J Clin Invest 47 (1968) 231-241
39. Jagannathan S.N., Connor W.E., Baker W.H., and Bhattacharyya A.K. The turnover of cholesterol in human atherosclerotic arteries. J Clin Invest 54 (1974) 366-377
40. Miettinen T.A. New insights into cholesterol dynamics. Arch Surg 113 (1978) 45-49
41. Stender S., and Hjelms E. In vivo influx of free and esterified plasma cholesterol into human aortic tissue without atherosclerotic lesions. J Clin Invest 74 (1984) 1871-1881
42. Osono Y., Wolleett L.A., Marotti K.R., Melchior G.W., and Dietschy J.M. Centripetal cholesterol flux from extrahepatic organs to the liver is independent of the concentration of high density lipoprotein-cholesterol in plasma. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93 (1996) 4114-4119
43. Jolley C.D., Wolleett L.A., Turkey S.D., and Dietschy J.A. Centripetal cholesterol flux to the liver is dictated by events in the peripheral organs and not by the plasma high density lipoprotein or apolipoprotein A-I concentration. J Lipid Res 39 (1998) 2143-2149
44. Schmitz G., and Langmann T. Structure, function and regulation of the ABC1 gene product. Curr Opin Lipidol 12 (2001) 129-140
45. Wang N., and Tall A.R. Regulation and mechanisms of ATP-binding cassette transporter A1-mediated cellular cholesterol efflux. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 23 (2003) 1178-1184
46. Frikke-Schmidt R., Nordestgaard B.G., Jensen G.B., and Tybjaerg-Hansen A. Genetic variation in ABC transporter A1 contributes to HDL cholesterol in the general population. J Clin Invest 114 (2004) 1343-1353
47. Vaisman B.L., Lambert G., Amar M., et al. ABCA1 overexpression leads to hyperalphalipoproteinemia and increased biliary cholesterol excretion in transgenic mice. J Clin Invest 108 (2001) 303-309
48. Joyce C., Amar M.J.A., Lambert G., et al. The ATP binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) modulates the development of aortic atherosclerosis in C57BL/6 and apoE-knockout mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99 (2002) 407-412
49. Basso F.P., Freeman L., Knapper C.L., et al. Role of the hepatic ABCA1 transporter in modulating intrahepatic cholesterol and plasma HDL-cholesterol concentrations. J Lipid Res 44 (2003) 296-302
50. Groen A.K., Bloks V.W., Bandsma R.H.J., et al. Hepatobiliary cholesterol transport is not impaired in ABCA1-null mice lacking HDL. J Clin Invest 108 (2001) 843-850
51. Miller N.E., Nestel P.J., and Clifton-Bligh P. Relationships between plasma lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations and the pool size and metabolism of cholesterol in man. Atherosclerosis 23 (1976) 535-547
52. Nestel P.J., and Miller M.E. Cholesterol kinetics and faecal steroid excretion in subjects with primary hyperalphalipoproteinaemia. Atherosclerosis 36 (1980) 127-134
53. Blum C.B., Dell R.B., Palmer R.H., et al. Relationship of the parameters of body cholesterol metabolism with plasma levels of HDL cholesterol and the major HDL apoproteins. J Lipid Res 26 (1985) 1079-1088
54. Miller N.E. On the associations of body cholesterol pool size with age, HDL cholesterol and plasma total cholesterol concentration in humans. Atherosclerosis (1987) 163-172
55. Dietschy J.M. Theoretical considerations of what regulates low-density-lipoprotein and high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol. Am J Clin Nutr 65 (1997) 1581S-1589S
56. Chiesa G., Michelagnoli S., Cassinotti M., et al. Mechanisms of high-density lipoprotein reduction after probucol treatment: changes in plasma cholesterol esterification/transfer and lipase activities. Metabolism 42 (1993) 229-235
57. Farkas M.H., Swift L.L., Hasty A.H., Linton M.F., and Fazio S. The recycling of apolipoprotein E in primary cultures of mouse hepatocytes. Evidence for a physiologic connection to high density lipoprotein metabolism. J Biol Chem 278 (2003) 9412-9417
58. Trigatti B.L., Krieger M., and Rigotti A. Influence of the HDL receptor SR-BI on lipoprotein metabolism and atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 23 (2003) 1732-1738
59. Wang N., Lan D., Chen W., Matsuura F., and Tall A.R. ATP-binding cassette transporters G1 and G4 mediate cellular cholesterol efflux to high density lipoproteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101 (2004) 9774-9779
60. Tall A.R., Wang N., and Mucksavage P. Is it the time to modify the reverse cholesterol transport model?. J Clin Invest 108 (2001) 1273-1275
61. Tall A.R., and Wang N. Tangier disease as a test of the reverse cholesterol transport hypothesis. J Clin Invest 106 (2000) 1205-1207
62. Zhang Y., Zanotti I., Reilly M.P., et al. Overexpression of apolipoprotein A-I promotes reverse transport of cholesterol from macrophages to feces in vivo. Circulation 108 (2003) 661-663
63. Brewer Jr. H., Remaley A.T., Neufeld E.B., Basso F., and Joyce C. Regulation of plasma high density lipoprotein levels by the ABCA1 transporter and the emerging role of high-density lipoprotein in the treatment of cardiovascular disease. Arterioscl Thromb Vasc Biol 24 (2004) 17755-17760
64. Ho K.-J., Biss K., and Taylor B. Serum cholesterol levels in US males. Arch Pathol 97 (1974) 306-315
65. Samuel P., and Perl W. Long-term decay of serum cholesterol radioactivity: body cholesterol metabolism in normals and patients with hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis. J Clin Invest 49 (1970) 346-357
66. Feldman S.A., Ho K.J., Lewis L.A., Mikkelson B., and Taylor C.B. Lipid and cholesterol metabolism in Alaskan Arctic Eskimos. Arch Pathol Lab Med 94 (1972) 42-58
67. Moutafis C.D., Simons L.A., Myant N.B., et al. The effect of cholestyramine on the faecal excretion of bile acids and neutral steroids in familial hypercholesterolaemia. Atherosclerosis 26 (1977) 329-334
68. Grundy S.M., and Bilheimer D.W. Inhibition of 3-hydroxy-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase by mevinolin in familial hypercholesterolemia heterozygotes: effects on cholesterol balance. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 81 (1984) 2538-2542
69. Goldberg I.J., Holleran S., Ramakrishnan R., et al. Lack of effect of lovastatin therapy on the parameters of whole-body cholesterol metabolism. J Clin Invest 86 (1990) 801-808
70. Duane W.C. Effects of lovastatin and dietary cholesterol on sterol homeostasis in healthy human subjects. J Clin Invest 92 (1993) 911-918
71. Reihner E., Rudling M., Stahlberg D., et al. Influence of pravastatin, a specific inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase, on hepatic metabolism of cholesterol. N Engl J Med 323 (1990) 224-228
72. Libby P., and Aikawa M. Mechanisms of plaque stabilization with statins. Am J Cardiol 91 4A (2003) 4B-8B
73. Brown B.G., Zhao X.Q., Chait A., et al. Simvastatin and niacin, antioxidant vitamins, or the combination for the prevention of coronary disease. N Engl J Med 345 (2001) 1583-1592
74. Grundy S.M., Ahrens Jr. E.H., Salen G., et al. Mechanisms of action of clofibrate on cholesterol metabolism in patients with hyperlipidemia. J Lipid Res 13 (1972) 531-549
75. Kudchodkar B.J., Sodhi H.S., Horlick L., and Mason D.T. Mechanisms of hypolipidemic action of nicotinic acid. Clin Pharmacol Ther 24 (1978) 354-373
76. Brousseau M.E., Diffenderfer M.R., Millar J.S., et al. Effects of cholesteryl ester transfer protein inhibition on high-density lipoprotein subspecies, apolipoprotein A-I metabolism, and fecal sterol excretion. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 25 (2005) 1057-1064
77. Eriksson M., Carlson L.A., Miettinen T.A., and Angelin B. Stimulation of fecal steroid excretion after infusion of recombinant proapolipoprotein A-I. Potential reverse cholesterol transport in humans. Circulation 100 (1999) 594-598
78. Nanjee M.N., Cooke C.J., Garvin R., et al. Intravenous apoA-I/lecithin discs and stimulated reverse cholesterol transport in humans. J Lipid Res 42 (2001) 1586-1593
79. Rodrigueza W.V., Klimuk S.K., Pritchard P.H., and Hope M.J. Cholesterol mobilization and regression of atheroma in cholesterol-fed rabbits induced by large unilamellar vesicles. Biochim Biophys Acta 1368 (1998) 306-320
80. Navab M., Anantharamaiah G.M., Jama S., et al. Oral administration of an apo A-I mimetic peptide synthesized from D-amino acids dramatically reduces atherosclerosis in mice independent of plasma cholesterol. Circulation 105 (2002) 290-292
81. Navab M., Anantharamaiah G.M., Reddy S.T., et al. Oral D-4F causes formation of pre-β high density lipoprotein-mediated cholesterol efflux and reverse cholesterol transport from macrophages in apolipoprotein E-null mice. Circulation 109 (2004) 3215-3220
82. Navab M., Anantharamaiah G.M., Reddy S.T., et al. An oral apoJ peptide renders HDL antiinflammatory in mice and monkeys and dramatically reduces atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-null mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 25 (2005) 1932-1937
83. Van Lenten B.J., Wagner A.C., Navab M., et al. D-4F, an apolipoprotein A-I mimetic peptide, inhibits the inflammatory response induced by influenza A infection of human type II pneumocytes. Circulation 110 (2004) 3252-3258
84. Li X., Chyu K.-Y., Faria Neto J.R., et al. Differential effects of apolipoprotein A-I mimetic peptide on evolving and established atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-null mice. Circulation 110 (2004) 1701-1705
85. McDonald D.L., Terry T.L., Agellong L.B., Nation P.N., and Francis G.A. Administration of tyrosyl radical-oxidized HDL inhibits the development of atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 23 (2003) 1583-1588
86. Nissen S.E., Tuzcu E.M., Schoenhagen P., et al., Reversal of Atherosclerosis with Aggressive Lipid Lowering (REVERSAL) Investigators. Statin therapy, LDL cholesterol, C-reactive protein, and coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 352 (2005) 29-38
87. Corti R., Fuster V., Fayad Z., et al. Lipid lowering by simvastatin induces regression of human atherosclerotic lesions: 2 years' follow-up by high-resolution noninvasive magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation 106 (2002) 2884-2887
88. Taylor A., Shaw L.J., Fayad Z., et al. Tracking atherosclerosis regression: a clinical tool in preventive cardiology. Atherosclerosis 180 (2005) 1-10
89. Birjmohun R.S., Hutten B.A., Kastelein JJP, et al. Efficacy and safety of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol-increasing compounds. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Am Coll Cardiol 45 (2005) 185-197