Against markedness (and what to replace it with)

Journal of Linguistics

Volumn 42, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 25-70

  Haspelmath, Martin ^a  

^a MAX PLANCK INSTITUTE FOR EVOLUTIONARY ANTHROPOLOGY   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 33645522127     PISSN: 00222267     EISSN: 14697742     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0022226705003683     Document Type: Article

References (144)

1. Aissen, Judith (1999). Markedness and subject choice in Optimality Theory. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory 17. 673-711.
2. Aissen, Judith (2003). Differential object marking: iconicity vs. economy. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory 21. 435-483.
3. Andersen, Henning (1989). Markedness theory - the first 150 years. In Mišeska Tomić (ed.), 11-46.
4. Andersen, Henning (2001). Markedness and the theory of linguistic change. In Andersen, Henning (ed.), Actualization: linguistic change in progress. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 21-57.
5. Anderson, Stephen R. (1974). The organization of phonology. New York: Academic Press.
6. Anderson, Stephen R. & Lightfoot, David W. (2002). The language organ: linguistics as cognitive physiology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
7. Archangeli, Diana B. (1988). Underspecification in phonology. Phonology 5.2. 183-207.
8. Archangeli, Diana B. (1992). Markedness in phonology. In Bright (ed.), 2: 391-393.
9. Archangeli, Diana B. (1997). Optimality Theory: an introduction to linguistics in the 1990S. In Archangeli, Diana B. & Pulleyblank, Douglas G. (eds.), Optimality Theory: an overview. Maiden, MA: Blackwell. 1-32.
10. Archangeli, Diana B. & Pulleyblank, Douglas G. (1994). Grounded phonology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
11. Ariel, Mira (2004). The rise (and potential fall) of reflexive pronouns. Ms., Tel Aviv University.
12. Baayen, Harald, Burani, Cristina & Schreuder, Robert (1997). Effects of semantic markedness in the processing of regular nominal singulars and plurals in Italian. In Booij, Geert & van Marle, Jaap (eds.), Yearbook of Morphology 1996. Dordrecht: Kluwer. 13-33.
13. Baker, Mark C. (1996). The poly synthesis parameter. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
14. Battistella, Edwin L. (1990). Markedness: the evaluative superstructure of language. New York: Oxford University Press.
15. Battistella, Edwin L. (1996). The logic of markedness. New York: Oxford University Press.
16. Bechert, Johannes (1977[1998]). Grammatische Kategorien: Affinität, Markiertheit und pragmatische Begründung. Linguistic Agency University of Trier, Series A, Paper No. 47.
17. [Reprinted in Bechert, Johannes (1998), Sprache in Raum und Zeit, vol. I: Kleine Schriften. Tübingen: Narr. 151-63.]
18. Bermúdez-Otero, Ricardo & Börjars, Kersti (2006). Markedness in phonology and syntax: the problem of grounding. Lingua.
19. Bickerton, Derek (1984). The language bioprogram hypothesis. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7. 173-212.
20. Blevins, Juliette (1995). The syllable in phonological theory. In Goldsmith (ed.), 206-244.
21. Blevins, Juliette (2004). Evolutionary phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
22. Botha, Rudolf P. (1989). Challenging Chomsky : the generative garden game. Oxford: Blackwell.
23. Brekhus, Wayne (1998). A sociology of the unmarked: redirecting our focus. Sociological Theory 16.1. 34-51.
24. Bright, William (ed.) (1992). International encyclopedia of linguistics. New York: Oxford University Press.
25. Brøndal, Viggo (1940). Compensation et variation, deux principes de linguistique générale. Scientia 9/10. 101-109.
26. [Reprinted in Brøndal, Viggo (1943), Essais de linguistique générale. Publiés avec une bibliographie des Üuvres de l'auteur. Copenhangen: E. Munksgaard. 105-116.]
27. Bybee, Joan L. (1985). Morphology: a study of the relation between meaning and form. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
28. Bybee, Joan L. (1995). Regular morphology and the lexicon. Language and Cognitive Processes 10.5. 425-455.
29. Bybee, Joan L. (2001). Phonology and language use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
30. Bybee, Joan L. & Newman, Jean E. (1995). Are stem changes as natural as affixes? Linguistics 33. 633-654.
31. Carnie, Andrew (2002). Syntax: a generative introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
32. Chomsky, Noam (1981). Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht: Foris.
33. Chomsky, Noam (1982). Noam Chomsky on the generative enterprise: a discussion with Riny Huybregts and Henk van Riemsdijk. Dordrecht: Foris.
34. Chomsky, Noam & Halle, Morris (1968). The sound pattern of English. New York: Harper & Row.
35. Comrie, Bernard (1986). Markedness, grammar, people and the world. In Eckman et al. (eds.), 85-196.
36. Corbett, Greville G. (1983). Resolution rules: agreement in person, number, and gender. In Gazdar, Gerald, Klein, Ewan & Pullum, Geoffrey K. (eds.), Order, concord and constituency. Dordrecht: Foris. 175-206.
37. Corbett, Greville G. (1991). Gender. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
38. Corbett, Greville G. (2000). Number. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
39. Corston-Oliver, Simon H. (2003). Core arguments and the inversion of the nominal hierarchy in Roviana. In Du Bois, John W., Kumpf, Lorraine E. & Ashby, William J. (eds.), Preferred argument structure: grammar as architecture for function (Studies in Discourse and Grammar 14). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 273-300.
40. Croft, William (1990). Typology and universal, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
41. Croft, William (1996). Markedness and universals: from the Prague school to typology. In Jankowsky, Kurt R. (ed.), Multiple perspectives on the historical dimensions of language. Münster: Nodus. 15-21.
42. Croft, William (2003). Typology and universals (2nd edn.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
43. Crosswhite, Catherine M. (2004). Vowel reduction. In Hayes et al. (eds.), 191-231.
44. de Lacy, Paul (2002). The formal expression of markedness. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.
45. Dixon, R. M. W. (1994). Ergativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
46. Dixon, R. M. W. (2004). The Jarawara language of southern Amazonia. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
47. Doleschal, Ursula (1995). Referring to women. In Geiger, Richard A. (ed.), Reference in multi-disciplinary perspective: philosophical object, cognitive subject, intersubjective process. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag. 277-298.
48. Dressler, Wolfgang U., Mayerthaler, Willi, Panagl, Oswald & Wurzel, Wolfgang U. (1987). Leitmotifs in Natural Morphology (Studies in Language Companion Series 10). Amsterdam : John Benjamins.
49. Dryer, Matthew S. (1995). Frequency and pragmatically unmarked word order. In Downing, Pamela & Noonan, Michael (eds.), Word order in discourse. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 105-135.
50. Dryer, Matthew S. (2004). Vacuous appeals to the number hierarchy. Paper presented at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, January 2004.
51. Eckman, Fred R. (1977). Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis. Language Learning 27.2. 315-330.
52. Eckman, Fred R. (1996). A functional-typological approach to second language acquisition theory. In Ritchie, William C. & Bhatia, Tej C. (eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition. San Diego: Academic Press. 195-211.
53. Eckman, Fred R. (2004). Universals, innateness and explanation in second language acquisition. Studies in Language 28.3. 681-703.
54. Eckman, Fred R., Moravcsik, Edith A. & Wirth, Jessica (eds.) (1986). Markedness. New York: Plenum Press.
55. Faingold, Eduardo D. (2003). The development of grammar in Spanish and the Romance languages. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
56. Fenk-Oczlon, Gertraud (1991). Frequenz und Kognition - Frequenz und Markiertheit. Folia Linguistica 25.3-4. 361-394.
57. Frajzyngier, Zygmunt (2001). A grammar of Lele. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications.
58. Gair, James W. (1988). Kinds of markedness. In Flynn, Suzanne & O'Neil, Wayne (eds.), Linguistic theory in second language acquisition. Dordrecht : Kluwer. 225-250.
59. Givón, T. (1991). Markedness in grammar: distributional, communicative and cognitive correlates of syntactic structure. Studies in Language 15.2. 335-370.
60. Givón, T. (1995). Markedness as meta-iconicity: distributional and cognitive correlates of syntactic structure. In Givón, T. (ed.), Functionalism and grammar. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 25-69.
61. Goldsmith, John (ed.) (1995). Handbook of phonological theory. Oxford: Blackwell.
62. Greenberg, Joseph (ed.) (1963). Universals of language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
63. Greenberg, Joseph (1966). Language universals, with special reference to feature hierarchies (Janua Linguarum, Series Minor 59). The Hague: Mouton.
64. Grimshaw, Jane (2001). Optimal clitic positions and the lexicon in Romance clitic systems. In Legendre et al. (eds.), 205-240.
65. Gurevich, Naomi (2001). A critique of markedness-based theories in phonology. Studies in the Linguistic Sciences 31.2. 89-114.
66. Gvozdanović, Jadranka (1989). Defining markedness. In Mišeska Tomić (ed.), 47-66.
67. Haegman, Liliane (1994). Introduction to government and binding theory. Oxford: Blackwell.
68. Haider, Hubert (1993). Markiertheit in der generativen Grammatik. In Jacobs, Joachim, von Stechow, Arnim, Sternefeld, Wolfgang & Vennemann, Theo (eds.), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research (vol. I). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 635-645.
69. Haiman, John (1983). Iconic and economic motivation. Language 59. 781-819.
70. Haiman, John (1985). Natural syntax. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
71. Hale, Mark & Reiss, Charles (2000). Substance abuse and dysfunctionalism: current trends in phonology. Linguistic Inquiry 31. 157-169.
72. Haspelmath, Martin (1999a). Explaining article-possessor complementarity: economic motivation in noun phrase syntax. Language 75.2. 227-243.
73. Haspelmath, Martin (1999b). Optimality and diachronic adaptation. Zeitschrift für Sprachwissenschaft 18.2. 180-205.
74. Haspelmath, Martin (2004a). Does linguistic explanation presuppose linguistic description? Studies in Language 28.3. 554-579.
75. Haspelmath, Martin (2004b). Explaining the Ditransitive Person-Role Constraint: a usage-based account. Constructions 2004/2, 49 pp. [Free online journal, www.constructions-online.de]
76. Haspelmath, Martin (in preparation). Frequency vs. iconicity in explaining grammatical asymmetries.
77. Hawkins, John A. (2004). Efficiency and complexity in grammars. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
78. Hayes, Bruce, Kirchner, Robert & Steriade, Donca (eds.) (2004). Phonetically based phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
79. Hayes, Bruce & Steriade, Donca (2004). Introduction: the phonetic bases of phonological Markedness. In Hayes et al. (eds.), 1-33.
80. Horn, Laurence R. (1984). Toward a new taxonomy for pragmatic inference: Q-based and R-based implicature. In Schiffrin, Deborah (ed.), Meaning, form, and use in context: linguistic applications. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. 11-42.
81. Horn, Wilhelm (1921). Sprachkörper und Sprachfunktion. Berlin: Mayer & Müller.
82. Hume, Elizabeth (2004). Deconstructing markedness. Berkeley Linguistics Society 30.
83. Hurch, Bernhard & Rhodes, Richard A. (1996). Natural Phonology: the state of the art. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
84. Ito, Junko & Mester, Armin (2003). Japanese morphophonemics: markedness and word structure. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
85. Jackendoff, Ray (2002). Foundations of language: brain, meaning, grammar, evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
86. Jakobson, Roman (1932[1971]). Zur Struktur des russischen Verbums. In Charisteria Guglielmo Mathesio. Prague. 74-84.
87. [Reprinted in Jakobson, Charisteria Guglielmo Mathesio (1971), 3-15.]
88. Jakobson, Roman (1939[1971]). Signe zero. In Mélanges de linguistique offerts à Charles Bally. Geneva. 143-152.
89. [Reprinted in Jakobson, Mélanges de Linguistique Offerts À Charles Bally (1971), 211-219.]
90. Jakobson, Roman (1941[1962]). Kindersprache, Aphasie und allgemeine Lautgesetze. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell. [Reprinted in Jakobson (1962), 328-401.]
91. Jakobson, Roman (1957[1971]). Shifters, verbal categories, and the Russian verb. In Jakobson (1971), 130-147.
92. Jakobson, Roman (1962). Selected writings (vol. I). The Hague: Mouton.
93. Jakobson, Roman (1963). Implications of language universals for linguistics. In Greenberg (ed.), 263-278.
94. Jakobson, Roman (1971). Selected writings (vol. II). The Hague: Mouton.
95. Johns, Alana (1992). Deriving ergativity. Linguistic Inquiry 23. 57-87.
96. Kager, René (1999). Optimality Theory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
97. Kean, Mary-Louise (1992). Markedness. In Bright (ed.), 2: 390-391.
98. Kilani-Schoch, Marianne (1988). Introduction à la morphologie naturelle. Berne: Peter Lang.
99. Lakoff, Robin Tolmach (2000). The language war. Berkeley, CA : University of California Press.
100. Langacker, Ronald W. (1991). Foundations of Cognitive Grammar, vol. II: Descriptive application. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
101. Lazard, Gilbert (1989). Transitivity and markedness: the antipassive in accusative languages. In Mišeska Tomić (ed.), 309-331.
102. Leech, Geoffrey, Rayson, Paul & Wilson, Andrew (2001). Word frequencies in written and spoken English based on the British National Corpus. Harlow: Longman.
103. Legendre, Géraldine, Grimshaw, Jane & Vikner, Sten (eds.) (2001). Optimality-theoretic syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
104. Lehrer, Adrienne (1985). Markedness and antonymy. Journal of Linguistics 21. 397-429.
105. Lenerz, Jürgen (1977). Zur Abfolge nominaler Satzglieder im Deutschen. Tübingen: Narr.
106. Levinson, Stephen C. (2000). Presumptive meanings: the theory of generalized conversational implicature. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
107. Ludwig, Ralph (2001). Markiertheit. In Haspelmath, Martin, König, Ekkehard, Osterreicher, Wulf & Raible, Wolfgang (eds.), Language typology and language universals: an international handbook (Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft) vol. I. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 400-419.
108. Lyons, John (1977). Semantics (2 vols.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
109. Mańczak, Witold (1970). Sur la théorie de catégories marquées et non-marquées de Greenberg. Linguistics 59. 29-36.
110. Mayerthaler, Willi (1981). Morphologische Natürlichkeit. Wiesbaden: Athenaion. [English translation: Mayerthaler 1988.]
111. Mayerthaler, Willi (1987). System-independent morphological naturalness. In Dressler et al. (eds.), 25-58.
112. Mayerthaler, Willi (1988). Naturalness in morphology. Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma.
113. McCarthy, John J. (2002). A thematic guide to Optimality Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
114. McCarthy, John J. & Prince, Alan (1994). The emergence of the unmarked: optimality in prosodic morphology. In Gonzalez, M. (ed.), Proceedings of the North Eastern Linguistic Society 24. 333-379.
115. Mišeska Tomić, Olga (ed.) (1989). Markedness in synchrony and diachrony, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
116. Moravcsik, Edith A. & Wirth, Jessica (1986). Markedness - an overview. In Eckman et al. (eds.), 1-11.
117. Müller, Gereon (1999). Optimality, markedness, and word order in German. Linguistics 37.5. 777-818.
118. Newmeyer, Frederick J. (1992). Iconicity and generative grammar. Language 68. 756-796.
119. Radford, Andrew (1988). Transformational grammar: a first course. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
120. Radford, Andrew (2004). Minimalist syntax: exploring the structure of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
121. Rice, Keren (2003). Featural markedness in phonology: variation. In Cheng, Lisa & Sybesma, Rint (eds.), The second Glot International state-of-the-article book. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 389-429.
122. Roberts, Ian (1998). Verb movement and markedness. In DeGraff, Michel (ed.), Language creation and language change: creolization, diachrony, and development. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 287-327.
123. Rutherford, W. E (1982). Markedness in second language acquisition. Language Learning 32.1. 85-108.
124. Schane, Sanford A. (1970). Phonological and morphological markedness. In Bierwisch, Manfred & Heidolph, Karl Erich (eds.), Progress in linguistics. The Hague: Mouton. 286-294.
125. Steriade, Donca (1995). Underspecification and markedness. In Goldsmith (ed.), 114-174.
126. Tiersma, Peter (1982). Local and general markedness. Language 58. 832-849.
127. Trubetzkoy, Nikolaj (1931). Die phonologischen Systeme. Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Prague 4. 96-116.
128. Trubetzkoy, Nikolaus (1939). Grundzüge der Phonologie. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
129. Trubetzkoy, N. S. (1975). N. S. Trubetzkoy's letters and notes, edited by Roman Jakobson. The Hague: Mouton.
130. van Riemsdijk, Henk (1978). A case study in syntactic markedness. Dordrecht: Foris.
131. Vennemann, Theo (1988). Preference laws for syllable structure. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
132. Waugh, Linda R. (1982). Marked and unmarked: a choice between unequals. Semiotica 38. 299-318.
133. Werner, Otmar (1989). Sprachökonomie und Natürlichkeit im Bereich der Morphologie. Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung 42. 34-47.
134. Wexler, Kenneth & Manzini, M. Rita (1987). Parameters and learnability in Binding Theory. In Roeper, Thomas & Williams, Edwin (eds.), Parameter setting. Dordrecht: Reidel. 41-76.
135. Witkowski, Stanley R. & Brown, Cecil H. (1983). Marking-reversals and cultural importance. Language 59. 569-582.
136. Woolford, Ellen (2001). Case patterns. In Legendre et al. (eds.), 509-543.
137. Wurzel, Wolfgang U. (1984). Flexionsmorphologie und Natürlichkeit. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. [English translation: Wurzel 1989.]
138. Wurzel, Wolfgang U. (1987). System-dependent morphological naturalness in inflection. In Dressler et al. (eds.), 59-96.
139. Wurzel, Wolfgang U. (1989). Inflectional morphology and naturalness, Dordrecht: Kluwer.
140. Wurzel, Wolfgang U. (1994). Morphology, Natural. In Asher, R. E. (ed.), The encyclopedia of language and linguistics (vol. 5). Oxford: Pergamon Press. 2590-2598.
141. Wurzel, Wolfgang U. (1998). On markedness. Theoretical Linguistics 24.1. 53-71.
142. Wurzel, Wolfgang U. (2000). Inflectional system and markedness. In Lahiri, Aditi (ed.), Analogy, levelling, markedness: principles of change in phonology and morphology. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. 193-214.
143. Zipf, George K. (1935). The psycho-biology of language. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
144. Zwicky, Arnold (1978). On markedness in morphology. Die Sprache 24. 129-143.