Influenza virus infections in mammals

Berliner und Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift

Volumn 119, Issue 3-4, 2006, Pages 123-131

  Vahlenkamp, Thomas W ^a,c   Harder, Timm C ^b  

^a Institut für Molekularbiologie   (Germany)

^b Institut für Virusdiagnostik   (Germany)

^c FEDERAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR ANIMAL HEALTH   (Germany)

Author keywords

Influenza A virus; Mammals; Natural and experimental infection; Pathogenicity

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; ANIMAL DISEASE; BIRD; BIRD DISEASE; DISEASE CARRIER; DISEASE MODEL; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; HUMAN; INFLUENZA VIRUS A; INFLUENZA VIRUS A H5N1; MAMMAL; ORTHOMYXOVIRUS INFECTION; PATHOGENICITY; REVIEW; SPECIES DIFFERENCE; VIROLOGY;

ANIMALS; BIRD DISEASES; BIRDS; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; DISEASE RESERVOIRS; HUMANS; INFLUENZA A VIRUS; INFLUENZA A VIRUS, H5N1 SUBTYPE; MAMMALS; ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; SPECIES SPECIFICITY;

ANIMALIA; ANSERIFORMES; AVES; AVIAN INFLUENZA VIRUS; CANIS FAMILIARIS; CETACEA; CHARADRIIFORMES; CRICETINAE; EQUIDAE; EQUUS CABALLUS; INFLUENZA A VIRUS; INFLUENZAVIRUS A; MAMMALIA; MUSTELA; MUSTELA PUTORIUS FURO; MUSTELA VISON; ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE; PRIMATES; SUS SCROFA;

EID: 33644953130     PISSN: 00059366     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (100)

1. Bennink J. R., T. N. Palmore (2004): The promise of siRNAs for the treatment of influenza. Trends Mol. Med. 10, 571-574.
2. Berendt R. F., G. H. Scott (1977): Evaluation of commercially prepared vaccines for experimentally induced type A/New Jersey/8/76 influenza virus infections in mice and squirrel monkeys. J. Infect. Dis. 136 (Suppl.), S712-S717.
3. Brett I. C., B. E. Johansson (2005): Immunization against influenza A virus: Comparison of conventional inactivated, live-attenuated and recombinant baculovirus produced purified hemagglutinin and neuraminidase vaccines in a murine model system. Virology 339, 273-280.
4. Brown E. G., H. Liu, L. C. Kit, S. Baird, M. Nesrallah (2001): Pattern of mutation in the genome of influenza A virus on adaptation to increased virulence in the mouse lung: identification of functional themes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98, 6883-6888.
5. Brown I. H. (2000): The epidemiology and evolution of influenza viruses in pigs. Vet. Microbiol. 74, 29-46.
6. Brown I. H., P. A. Harris, J. W. McCauley, D. J. Alexander (1998): Multiple genetic assortment of avian and human influenza A viruses in european pigs, resulting in the emergence of an H1N2 virus of novel genotype. J. Gen. Virol. 79, 2947-2955.
7. Brown I. H., M. L. Hill, P. A. Harris, D. J. Alexander, J. W. McCauley (1997): Genetic characterisation of an influenza A virus of unusual subtype (H1N7) isolated from pigs in England. Arch. Virol. 142, 1045-1050.
8. Callan R. J., G. Early, H. Kida, V. S. Hinshaw (1995): The appearance of H3 influenza viruses in seals. J. Gen. Virol. 76, 199-203.
9. Chittaganpitch M., S. Waicharoen, D. T. Nguyen, T. Nguyen, N. T. H. Hanh, C. P. Jae-Tsai, M. J. Pan (2003): New H1N2 and H3N1 influenza viruses in Taiwanese pig herds. Vet. Rec. 153, 408.
10. Choi Y. K., J. D. Nguyen, H. Ozaki, R. J. Webby, P. Puthavathana, C. Buranathal, A. Chaisingh, P. Auewarakul, N. T. H. Hanh, S. K. Ma, P. Y. Hui, Y. Guan, J. S. M. Peiris, R. G. Webster (2005): Studies of H5N1 influenza virus infection of pigs by using viruses isolated in Vietnam and Thailand in 2004. J. Virol. 79, 10821-10825.
11. Claas E. C., Y. Kawaoka, J. C. deJong, N. Masurel, R. G. Webster (1994): Infection of children with avian-human reassortant influenza virus from pigs in Europe. Virology 204, 453-457.
12. Clements M. L., M. H. Snyder, A. J. Buckler-White, E. L. Tierney, W. T. London, B. R. Murphy (1986): Evaluation of avian-human reassortant influenza A/Washington/897/80 x A/Pintail/119/79 virus in monkeys and adult volunteers. J. Clin. Microbiol. 24, 47-51.
13. Conn C. A., J. L. McClellan, H. F. Maassab, C. W. Smitka, J. A. Majde, M. J. Kluger (1995): Cytokines and the acute phase response to influenza virus in mice. Am. J. Physiol. 268, R78-R84.
14. Crawford P. C., E. J. Dubovi, W. L. Castleman, I. Stephenson, E. P. Gibbs, L. Chen, C. Smith, R. C. Hill, P. Ferro, J. Pompey, R. A. Bright, M. J. Medina, C. M. Johnson, C. W. Olsen, N. J. Cox, A. I. Klimov, J. M. Katz, R. O. Donis (2005): Transmission of Equine Influenza Virus to Dogs. Science 310, 482-485.
15. Daly J. M., A. C. Lai, M. M. Binns, T. M. Chambers, M. Barrandeguy, J. A. Mumford (1996): Antigenic and genetic evolution of equine H3N8 influenza A viruses. J. Gen. Virol. 77, 661-671.
16. Daly J. M., J. R. Newton, J. A. Mumford (2004): Current perspectives on control of equine influenza. Vet. Res. 35, 411-423.
17. Eichelberger M. C., G. A. Prince, M. G. Ottolini (2004): Influenza-induced tachypnea is prevented in immune cotton rats, but cannot be treated with an anti-inflammatory steroid or a neuraminidase inhibitor. Virology 322, 300-307.
18. Englund L. (2000): Studies on influenza viruses H10N4 and H10N7 of avian origin in mink. Vet. Microbiol. 74, 101-107.
19. Gabriel G., B. Dauber, T. Wolff, O. Planz, H. D. Klenk, J. Stech (2005): The viral polymerase mediates adaptation of an avian influenza virus to a mammalian host. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 102, 18590-5.
20. Gao P., S. Watanabe,T. Ito, H. Goto, K. Wells, M. McGregor, A. J. Cooley, Y. Kawaoka (1999): Biological heterogeneity, including systemic replication in mice, of H5N1 influenza A virus isolates from humans in Hong Kong. J. Virol. 73, 3184-3189.
21. Ge Q., L. Filip, A. Bai, T. Nguyen, H. N. Eisen, J. Chen (2004): Inhibition of influenza virus production in virus-infected mice by RNA interference. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101, 8676-8681.
22. Geraci J. R., D. J. St Aubin, I. K. Barker, R. G. Webster, V. S. Hinshaw, W. J. Bean, H. L. Ruhnke, J. H. Prescott, G. Early, A. S. Baker, S. Madoff, R. T. Schooley (1982): Mass mortality of harbor seals: pneumonia associated with influenza A virus. Science 215, 1129-1131.
23. Govorkova E. A., A. S. Gambaryan, E. C. Claas, Y. A. Smirnov (2000): Amino acid changes in the hemagglutinin and matrix proteins of influenza a (H2) viruses adapted to mice. Acta Virol. 44, 241-248.
24. Govorkova E. A., J. E. Rehg, S. Krauss, H. L. Yen, Y. Guan, M. Peiris, T. D. Nguyen, T. H. Hanh, P. Puthavathana, H. T. Long, C. Buranathai, W. Lim, R. G. Webster, E. Hoffmann (2005): Lethality to ferrets of H5N1 influenza viruses isolated from humans and poultry in 2004. J. Virol. 79, 2191-2198.
25. Guo Y., M. Wang, Y. Kawaoka, O. German, T. Ito, T. Saito, R. G. Webster (1992): Characterization of a new avian-like influenza A virus from horses in China. Virology 188, 245-255.
26. Haller O. (1981): Inborn resistance of ice to orthomyxoviruses. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 92, 25-52.
27. Haller O., H. Amheiter, I. Gresser, J. Lindenmann (1979): Genetically determined, interferon-dependent resistance to influenza virus in mice. J. Exp. Med. 149, 601-612.
28. Hatta M., P. Gao, P. Halfmann, Y. Kawaoka (2001): Molecular basis for high virulence of Hong Kong H5N1 influenza A viruses. Science 293, 1840-1842.
29. Heath A. W., C. Addison, M. Ali, D. Teale, C. W. Potter (1983): In vivo and in vitro hamster models in the assessment of virulence of recombinant influenza viruses. Antiviral Res. 3, 241-252.
30. Heinen P. (2003): Swine influenza: a zoonosis. Vet. Sci. Tomorrow [serial online]. 2003 Sept 15. Available at: http://www.vetscite. org/publish/articles/ 000041/print.html.
31. Heinen P. P., F. A. Rijsewijk, E. A. de Boer-Luijtze, A. T. Bianchi (2002): Vaccination of pigs with a DNA construct expressing an influenza virus M2-nucleoprotein fusion protein exacerbates disease after challenge with influenza A virus. J. Gen. Virol. 83, 1851-1859.
32. Hennet T., H. J. Ziltener, K. Frei, E. Peterhans (1992): A kinetic study of immune mediators in the lungs of mice infected with influenza A virus. J. Immunol. 149, 932-939.
33. Herlocher M. L., S. Elias, R. Truscon, S. Harrison, D. Mindell, C. Simon, A. S. Monto (2001): Ferrets as a transmission model for influenza: sequence changes in HA1 of type A (H3N2) virus. J. Infect. Dis. 184, 542-546.
34. Herlocher M. L., R. Truscon, S. Elias, H. L. Yen, N. A. Roberts, S. E. Ohmit, A. S. Monto (2004): Influenza viruses resistant to the antiviral drug oseltamivir : transmission studies in ferrets. J. Infect. Dis. 190, 1627-1630.
35. Hinshaw V. S., W. J. Bean, J. Geraci, P. Fiorelli, G. Early, R. G. Webster (1986): Characterization of two influenza A viruses from a pilot whale. J. Virol. 58, 655-656.
36. Hinshaw V. S., R. G. Webster, B. C. Easterday, W. J. Bean Jr. (1981): Replication of avian influenza A viruses in mammals. Infect. Immun. 34, 354-361.
37. Horisberger M. A. (1995): Interferons, Mx genes, and resistance to influenza virus. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 152, 67-71.
38. Ito T., Y. Kawaoka, A. Nomura, K. Otsuki (1999): Receptor specificity of influenza A viruses from sea mammals correlates with lung sialyloligosaccharides in these animals. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 61, 955-958.
39. Karasin A. I., I. H. Brown, S. Carman, C. W. Olsen (2000): Isolation and characterization of H4N6 avian influenza viruses from pigs with pneumonia in Canada. J. Virol. 74, 9322-9327.
40. Katz J. M., X. Lu, T. M. Tumpey, C. B. Smith, M. W. Shaw, K. Subbarao (2000): Molecular correlates of influenza A H5N1 virus pathogenesis in mice. J. Virol. 74, 10807-10810.
41. Keawcharoen J., K. Oraveerakul, T. Kuiken, R. A. M. Fouchier, A. Amonsin, S. Payungpom, S. Noppornpanth, S. Wattanodorn, A. Theamboonlers, R. Tantilertcharoen, R. Pattanarangsan, N. Arya, P. Ratanakorn, A. D. M. E. Osterhaus, Y. Poovorawan (2004): Avian influenza H5N1 in tigers and leopards. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 10, 2189-2191.
42. Klingebom B., L. Englund, R. Rott, N. Juntti, G. Rockborn (1985): An avian influenza A virus killing a mammalian species - the mink. Arch. Virol. 86, 347-351.
43. Krug R. M., M. Shaw, B. Broni, G. Shapiro, O. Haller (1985): Inhibition of influenza viral mRNA synthesis in cells expressing the interferon-induced Mx gene product. J. Virol. 56, 201-206.
44. Kuiken T., G. Rimmelzwaan, D. van Riel, G. van Amerongen, M. Baars, R. Fouchier, A. Osterhaus (2004): Avian H5N1 influenza in cats. Science 306, 241.
45. Li Z., H. Chen, P. Jiao, G. Deng, G. Tian, Y. Li, E. Hoffmann, R. G. Webster, Y. Matsuoka, K. Yu (2005): Molecular basis of replication of duck H5N1 influenza viruses in a mammalian mouse model. J. Virol. 79, 12058-12064.
46. Lindenmann J., C. A. Lane, D. Hobson (1963): The resistance of A2G mice to myxoviruses. J. Immunol. 90, 942-951.
47. Lipatov A. S., E. A. Govorkova, R. J. Webby et al. (2004): Influenza: Emergence and control. J. Virol. 78, 8951-8959.
48. Lipatov A. S., R. J. Webby, E. A. Govorkova, S. Krauss, R. G. Webster (2005): Efficacy of H5 influenza vaccines produced by reverse genetics in a lethal mouse model. J. Infect. Dis. 191, 1216-1220.
49. Lu X., T. M. Tumpey, T. Morken, S. R. Zaki, N. J. Cox, J. M. Katz (1999): A mouse model for the evaluation of pathogenesis and immunity to influenza A (H5N1) viruses isolated from humans. J. Virol. 73, 5903-5911.
50. Lvov D. K., V. M. Zdanov, A. A. Sazonov, N. A. Braude, E. A. Vladimirtceva, L. V. Agafonov, E. I. Skljanskaja, N. V. Kaverin, V. I. Reznik, T. V. Pysina, A. M. Oserovic, A. A. Berzin, I. A. Mjasnikova, R. Y. Podcernjaeva, S. M. Klimenko, V. P. Andrejev, M. A. Yakhno (1978): Comparison of influenza viruses isolated from man and from whales. Bull. World Health Organ. 56, 923-930.
51. Maher J. A., J. DeStefano (2004): The ferret: an animal model to study influenza virus. Lab. Anim. (NY) 33, 50-53.
52. Maines T. R., X. H. Lu, S. M. Erb, L. Edwards, J. Guarner, P. W. Greer, D. C. Nguyen, K. J. Szretter, L. M. Chen, P. Thawatsupha, M. Chittaganpitch, S. Waicharoen, D. T. Nguyen, T. Nguyen, H. H. Nguyen, J. H. Kim, L. T. Hoang, C. Kang, L. S. Phuong, W. Lim, S. Zaki, R. O. Donis, N. J. Cox, J. M. Katz, T. M. Tumpey (2005): Avian influenza (H5N1) viruses isolated from humans in Asia in 2004 exhibit increased virulence in mammals. J. Virol. 79, 11788-11800.
53. Matsuura Y., R. Yanagawa, H. Noda (1979): Experimental infection of mink with influenza A viruses. Arch. Virol. 62, 71-76.
54. McCullers J. A., E. Hoffmann, V. C. Huber, A. D. Nickerson (2005): A single amino acid change in the C-terminal domain of the matrix protein M1 of influenza B virus confers mouse adaptation and virulence. Virology 336, 318-326.
55. Mumford J. A., D. Jessett, U. Dunleavy, J. Wood, D. Hannant, B. Sundquist, R. F. Cook (1994): Antigenicity and immunogenicity of experimental equine influenza ISCOM vaccines. Vaccine 12, 857-863.
56. Murphy B. R., V. S. Hinshaw, D. L. Sly, W. T. London, N. T. Hosier, F. T. Wood, R. G. Webster, R. M. Chanock (1982): Virulence of avian influenza A viruses for squirrel monkeys. Infect. Immun. 37, 1119-1126.
57. Murphy B. R., D. L. Sly, N. T. Hosier, W. T. London, R. M. Chanock (1980): Evaluation of three strains of influenza A virus in humans and in owl, cebus, and squirrel monkeys. Infect. Immun. 28, 688-691.
58. Murphy B. R., D. L. Sly, E. L. Tierney, N. T. Hosier, J. G. Massicot, W. T. London, R. M. Chanock, R. G. Webster, V. S. Hinshaw (1982): Reassortant virus derived from avian and human influenza A viruses is attenuated and immunogenic in monkeys. Science 218, 1330-1332.
59. Nielsen O., A. Clavijo, J. A. Boughen (2001): Serologic evidence of influenza A infection in marine mammals of arctic Canada. J. Wildl. Dis. 37, 820-825.
60. Ohishi K., N. Kishida, A. Ninomiya, H. Kida, Y. Takada, N. Miyazaki, A. N. Bortunov, T. Maruyama (2004): Antibodies to human-related H3 influenza A virus in Baikal seals (Phoca sibirica) and ringed seals (Phoca hispida) in Russia. Microbiol. Immunol. 48, 905-909.
61. Ohishi K., A. Ninomiya, H. Kida, C. H. Park, T. Maruyama, T. Arai, E. Katsumata, T. Tobayama, A. N. Boltunov, L. S. Khuraskin, N. Miyazaki (2002): Serologjcal evidence of transmission of human influenza A and B viruses to Caspian seals (Phoca caspica). Microbiol. Immunol. 46, 639-644.
62. Olsen C. W. (2002): The emergence of novel swine influenza viruses in North America. Virus Res. 85, 199-210.
63. Osterhaus A. D., G. F. Rimmelzwaan, B. E. Martina, T. M. Bestebroer, R. A. Fouchier (2000): Influenza B virus in seals. Science 288, 1051-1053.
64. Ottolini M. G., J. C. Blanco, M. C. Eichelberger, D. D. Porter, L. Pletneva, J. Y. Richardson, G. A. Prince (2005): The cotton rat provides a useful small-animal model for the study of influenza virus pathogenesis. J. Gen. Virol. 86, 2823-2830.
65. Paniker C. K., C. M. Nair (1970): Infection with A2 Hong Kong influenza virus in domestic cats. Bull. World Health Organ. 43, 859-862.
66. Paniker C. K., C. M. Nair (1972): Experimental infection of animals with influenzavirus types A and B. Bull. World Health Organ. 47, 461-463.
67. ProMED Mail, Avian influenza H5N1, Civets (Archive number 20050826.2527) available at www.promedmail.org/pls/promed
68. Renegar K. B. (1992): Influenza virus infections and immunity: a review of human and animal models. Lab. Anim. Sci. 42, 222-232.
69. Rimmelzwaan G. F., J. C. de Jong, T. M. Bestebroer, A. M. van Loon, E C. Claas, R. A. Fouchier, A. D. Osterhaus (2001a): Antigenic and genetic characterization of swine influenza A (H1N1) viruses isolated from pneumonia patients in The Netherlands. Virology 282, 301-306.
70. Rimmelzwaan G. F., T. Kuiken, G. van Amerongen, T. M. Bestebroer, R. A. Fouchier, A. D. M. E. Osterhaus (2001b): Pathogenesis of influenza A (H5N1) virus infection in a primate model. J. Virol. 77, 3148-3156.
71. Rimmelzwaan G. F., D. van Riel, M. Baars, T. M. Bestebroer, G. van Amerongen, R. A. Fouchier, A. D. M. E. Osterhaus, T. Kuiken (2006): Influenza A Virus (H5N1) Infection in Cats Causes Systemic Disease with Potential Novel Routes of Virus Spread within and between Hosts. Am. J. Rathol. 168, 176-183.
72. Sadowski W., J. Wilczynski, R. Semkow, M. Tulimowska, S. Krus, M. Kantoch (1987): The cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) as an experimental model for studying viruses in respiratory tract infections. II. Influenza viruses types A and B. Med. Dosw. Mikrobiol. 39, 43-55.
73. Saito T., W. Lim, T. Suzuki, Y. Suzuki, H. Kida, S. I. Nishimura, M. Tashiro (2001): Characterization of a human H9N2 influenza virus isolated in Hong Kong. Vaccine 20, 125-133.
74. Scholtissek C., V. S. Hinshaw, C. W. Olsen (1998): Influenza in pigs and their role as the intermediate host. In: Nicholson, K.G., Webster, R.G., Hay, A.J., eds. Textbook of influenza. Oxford: Blackwell Science, 137-145.
75. Scott G. H., E. L. Stephen, R. F. Behrendt (1978): Activity of amantadine, rimantadine, and ribavirin against swine influenza in mice and squirrel monkeys. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 13, 284-288.
76. Seo S. H., E. Hoffmann, R. G. Webster (2002): Lethal H5N1 influenza viruses escape host anti-viral cytokine responses. Nat. Med. 8, 950-954.
77. Shope R. E. (1931): Swine influenza. III. Filtration experiments and aetiology. J. Exp. Med. 54, 373-380.
78. Smith H., C. Sweet (1988): Lessons for human influenza from pathogenicity studies with ferrets. Rev. Infect. Dis. 10, 56-75.
79. Snyder M. H., M. L. Clements, D. Herrington, W. T. London, E. L. Tierney, B. R. Murphy (1986): Comparison by studies in squirrel monkeys, chimpanzees, and adult humans of avian-human influenza A virus reassortants derived from different avian influenza virus donors. J. Clin. Microbiol. 24, 467-469.
80. Staeheli P., O. Haller (1987): Interferon-induced Mx protein: a mediator of cellular resistance to influenza virus. Interferon 8, 1-23.
81. Stech J., H. Garn, M. Wegmann, R. Wagner, H. D. Klenk (2005): A new approach to an influenza live vaccine: modification of the cleavage site of hemagglutinin. Nat. Med. 11, 683-689.
82. Taubenberger J. K., A. H. Reid, R. M. Lourens, R. Wang, G. Jin, T. G. Fanning (2005): Characterization of the 1918 influenza virus polymerase genes. Nature 437, 889-893.
83. Thacker E. L. (2001): Immunology of the porcine respiratory disease complex. Vet. Clin. North. Am. Food Anim. Pract. 17, 551-565.
84. Thanawongnuwech R., A. Amonsin, R. Tantilertcharoen, S. Damrongwatanapokin, A. Theamboonlers, S. Payungporn, K. Nanthapornphiphat, S. Ratanamungklanon, E. Tunak., T. Songserm, V. Vivatthanavanich, T. Lekdumrongsak, S. Kesdangsakonwut, S. Tunhikorn, Y. Poovarawan (2005): Probable tiger-to-tiger transmission of avian influenza H5N1. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11, 699-701. Erratum in: Emerg. Infect. Dis. 11, 976.
85. Tompkins S. M., C. Y. Lo, T. M. Tumpey, S. L. Epstein (2004): Protection against lethal influenza virus challenge by RNA interference in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101, 8682-8686.
86. Tsai C. P., M. J. Pan (2003): New H1N2 and H3N1 influenza viruses in Taiwanese pig herds. Vet. Rec. 153, 408.
87. Vacheron F., A. Rudent, S. Perin, C. Labarre, A.M. Quero, M. Guenounou (1990): Production of interleukin 1 and tumour necrosis factor activities in bronchoalveolar washings following infection of mice by influenza virus. J. Gen. Virol. 71, 477-479.
88. Van Maanen C., A. Cullinane (2002): Equine influenza virus infections: an update. Vet. Q. 24, 79-94.
89. Van Reeth K. (2000): Cytokines in the pathogenesis of influenza. Vet. Microbiol. 74, 109-116.
90. Van Reeth K., G. Labarque, S. De Clercq, M. Pensaert (2001): Efficacy of vaccination of pigs with different H1N1 swine influenza viruses using a recent challenge strain and different parameters of protection. Vaccine 19, 4479-4486.
91. Van Reeth K., H. Nauwynck (2000): Proinflammatory cytokines and viral respiratory disease in pigs. Vet. Res. 31, 187-213.
92. Van Reeth K., H. Nauwynck, M. Pensaert (1998): Bronchoalveolar interferon-alpha, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1, and inflammation during acute influenza in pigs: a possible model for humans? J. Infect. Dis. 177, 1076-1079.
93. Van Reeth K., S. van Gucht, M. Pensaert (2003): Investigations of the efficacy of European H1N1- and H3N2-based swine influenza vaccines against the novel H1N2 subtype. Vet. Rec. 153, 9-13.
94. Vetscite (2004): Equine influenza virus jumps to dogs in Florida. http://www.vetscite.org/publish/items/001864/index.html
95. Waddell G. H., M. B. Teigland, M. M. Sigel (1963): A new influenza virus associated with equine respiratory disease. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 143, 587-590.
96. Ward A. C. (1995): Specific changes in the M1 protein during adaptation of influenza virus to mouse. Arch. Virol. 140, 383-389.
97. Xu C., W. Fan, R. Wei, H. Zhao (2004): Isolation and identification of swine influenza recombinant A/Swine/Shandong/1/2003 (H9N2) virus. Microbes Infect. 6, 919-925.
98. Yates P., J. A. Mumford (2000): Equine influenza vaccine efficacy: the significance of antigenic variation. Vet. Microbiol. 74, 173-177.
99. Yen H. L., A. S. Monto, R. G. Webster, E. A. Govorkova (2005): Virulence may determine the necessary duration and dosage of oseltamivir treatment for highly pathogenic A/Vietnam/1203/04 influenza virus in mice. J. Infect. Dis. 192, 665-672.
100. Zitzow L. A., T. Rowe, T. Morken, W. J. Shieh, S. Zaki, J. M. Katz (2002): Pathogenesis of avian influenza A (H5N1) viruses in ferrets. J. Virol. 76, 4420-4429.