Treatment and prevention of primary intracerebral hemorrhage

Seminars in Neurology

Volumn 25, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 445-452

  Towfighi, Amytis ^b   Greenberg, Steven M ^b   Rosand, Jonathan ^a,b  

^a Neurology Clinical Trial Unit   (United States)

^b MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

Cerebral amyloid angiopathy; Hypertension; Intracerebral hemorrhage; Warfarin

Indexed keywords

BRAIN HEMORRHAGE; COMPARATIVE STUDY; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; METHODOLOGY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PATHOLOGY; REVIEW; VASCULAR AMYLOIDOSIS;

CEREBRAL AMYLOID ANGIOPATHY; CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED;

EID: 33644841593     PISSN: 02718235     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1055/s-2005-923538     Document Type: Review

References (102)

1. Sacco RL, Mayer SA. Epidemiology of intracerebral hemorrhage. In: Feldmann E, ed. Intracerebral Hemorrhage. Armonk, NY: Futura; 1994:3-26
2. Albers GW, Amarenco P, Easton JD, Sacco RL, Teal P. Antithrombotic and thrombolytic therapy for ischemic stroke: the seventh ACCPP conference on antithrombotic and thrombolytic therapy. Chest 2004;126:483S-512S
3. Broderick JP, Brott T, Tomsick T, Huster G, Miller R. The risk of subarachnoid and intracerebral hemorrhages in blacks as compared with whites. N Engl J Med 1992;326:733-736
4. Counsell C, Boonyakarnkul S, Dennis M, et al. Primary intracerebral haemorrhage in the Oxfordshire community stroke project. 2: prognosis. Cerebrovasc Dis 1995;5:26-34
5. Woo D, Sauerbeck LR, Kissela BM, et al. Genetic and environmental risk factors for intracerebral hemorrhage: preliminary results of a population-based study. Stroke 2002;33:1190-1196; discussion 1190-1196
6. Anderson C, Chakera T, Stewart-Wynne E, Jamrozik K. Spectrum of primary intracerebral hemorrhage in Perth, Western Australia, 1989-1990: incidence and outcome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994;57:936-940
7. Itoh Y, Yamada M, Hayakawa M, Otomo E, Miyatake T. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy: a significant cause of cerebellar as well as lobar cerebral hemorrhage in the elderly. J Neurol Sci 1993;116:135-141
8. Knudsen KA, Rosand J, Karluk D, Greenberg SM. Clinical diagnosis of cerebral amyloid angiopathy: validation of the Boston criteria. Neurology 2001;56:537-539
9. Vinters HV. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy: a critical review. Stroke 1987;18:311-324
10. Fisher C. Pathological observations in hypertensive cerebral hemorrhage. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1971;30:536-550
11. Alberts MJ, McCarron MO, Hoffmann KL, Graffagnino C. Familial clustering of intracerebral hemorrhage: a prospective study in North Carolina. Neuroepidemiology 2002;21:18-21
12. Roob G, Fazekas F. Magnetic resonance imaging of cerebral microbleeds. Curr Opin Neurol 2000;13:69-73
13. Tanaka A, Ueno Y, Nakayama Y, Takano K, Takebayashi S. Small chronic hemorrhages and ischemic lesions in association with spontaneous intracerebral hematomas. Stroke 1999;30:1637-1642
14. Atlas SW, Mark AS, Grossman PJ, Gomori JM. Intracranial hemorrhage - gradient-echo MR imaging at 1.5 T: comparison with spin-echo imaging and clinical applications. Radiology 1988;168:803-807
15. Fazekas F, Kleinert R, Roob G, et al. Histopathologic analysis of foci of signal loss on gradient-echo T2*-weighted MR images in patients with spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: evidence of microangiopathy-related microbleeds. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1999;20:637-642
16. Rosand J. Hypertension and the brain: stroke is just the tip of the iceberg. Neurology 2004;63:6-7
17. Lee SH, Park JM, Kwon SJ, et al. Left ventricular hypertrophy is associated with cerebral microbleeds in hypertensive patients. Neurology 2004;63:16-21
18. Greenberg SM, Eng JA, Ning M, Smith EE, Rosand J. Hemorrhage burden predicts recurrent intracerebral hemorrhage after lobar hemorrhage. Stroke 2004;35:1415-1420
19. Arakawa S, Saku Y, Ibayashi S, Nagao T, Fujishima M. Blood pressure control and recurrence of hypertensive brain hemorrhage. Stroke 1998;29:1806-1809
20. Group SCR. Prevention of various stroke types by treatment of isolated systolic hypertension. International Stroke Society's Second World Congress of Stroke; 1992
21. PROGRESS Collaborative Group. Randomised trial of a perindopril-based blood-pressure-lowering regimen among 6105 individuals with previous stroke or transient ischaemic attack. Lancet 2001;358:1033-1041
22. Vonsattel JP, Myers RH, Hedley-Whyte ET, Ropper AH, Bird ED, Richardson EP. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy without and with cerebral hemorrhages: a comparative histological study. Ann Neurol 1991;30:637-649
23. Mandybur TI. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy: the vascular pathology and complications. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1986;45:79-90
24. Yamada M, Itoh Y, Shintaku M, et al. Immune reactions associated with cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Stroke 1996;27:1155-1162
25. Maat-Schieman ML, van Duinen SG, Rozemuller AJ, Haan J, Roos RA. Association of vascular amyloid beta and cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system in hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis (Dutch) and Alzheimer disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1997;56:273-284
26. Uchihara T, Akiyama H, Kondo H, Ikeda K. Activated microglial cells are colocalized with perivascular deposits of amyloid-beta protein in Alzheimer's disease brain. Stroke 1997;28:1948-1950
27. Vinters HV, Natte R, Maat-Schieman ML, et al. Secondary microvascular degeneration in amyloid angiopathy of patients with hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis, Dutch type (HCHWA-D). Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1998;95:235-244
28. Palsdottir A, Abrahamson M, Thorsteinsson L, et al. Mutation in cystatin C gene causes hereditary brain haemorrhage. Lancet 1988;2:603-604
29. Levy E, Lopez-Otin C, Ghiso J, Geltner D, Frangione B. Stroke in Icelandic patients with hereditary amyloid angiopathy is related to a mutation in the cystatin C gene, an inhibitor of cysteine proteases. J Exp Med 1989;169:1771-1778
30. Greenberg SM, Briggs ME, Hyman BT, et al. Apolipoprotein E epsilon 4 is associated with the presence and earlier onset of hemorrhage in cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Stroke 1996;27:1333-1337
31. Nicoll JA, Burnett C, Love S, et al. High frequency of apolipoprotein E epsilon 2 allele in hemorrhage due to cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Ann Neurol 1997;41:716-721
32. Greenberg SM, Vonsattel JP, Segal AZ, et al. Association of apolipoprotein E epsilon 2 and vasculopathy in cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Neurology 1998;50:961-965
33. Schmechel DE, Saunders AM, Strittmatter WJ, et al. Increased amyloid beta-peptide deposition in cerebral cortex as a consequence of apolipoprotein E genotype in late-onset Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993;90:9649-9653
34. Greenberg SM, Rebeck GW, Vonsattel JP, Gomez-Isla T, Hyman BT. Apolipoprotein E epsilon 4 and cerebral hemorrhage associated with amyloid angiopathy. Ann Neurol 1995;38:254-259
35. Premkumar DR, Cohen DL, Hedera P, Friedland RP, Kalaria RN. Apolipoprotein E-epsilon 4 alleles in cerebral amyloid angiopathy and cerebrovascular pathology associated with Alzheimer's disease. Am J Pathol 1996;148:2083-2095
36. Olichney JM, Hansen LA, Galasko D, et al. The apolipoprotein E epsilon 4 allele is associated with increased neuritic plaques and cerebral amyloid angiopathy in Alzheimer's disease and Lewy body variant. Neurology 1996;47:190-196
37. McCarron MO, Nicoll JA, Stewart J, et al. The apolipoprotein E epsilon 2 allele and the pathological features in cerebral amyloid angiopathy-related hemorrhage. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1999;58:711-718
38. Greenberg SM, Vonsattel JP. Diagnosis of cerebral amyloid angiopathy: sensitivity and specificity of cortical biopsy [see comments]. Stroke 1997;28:1418-1422
39. Olichney JM, Hansen LA, Hofstetter CR, Grundman M, Katzman R, Thal LJ. Cerebral infarction in Alzheimer's disease is associated with severe amyloid angiopathy and hypertension. Arch Neurol 1995;52:702-708
40. Okazaki H, Reagan TJ, Campbell RJ. Clinicopathologic studies of primary cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Mayo Clin Proc 1979;54:22-31
41. Greenberg SM, Vonsattel JP, Stakes JW, Gruber M, Finklestein SP. The clinical spectrum of cerebral amyloid angiopathy: presentations without lobar hemorrhage. Neurology 1993;43:2073-2079
42. Hendricks HT, Franke CL, Theunissen PH. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy: diagnosis by MRJ and brain biopsy. Neurology 1990;40:1308-1310
43. Yoshimura M, Yamanouchi H, Kuzuhara S, et al. Dementia in cerebral amyloid angiopathy: a clinicopathological study. J Neurol 1992;239:441-450
44. Silbert PL, Bartleson JD, Miller GM, Parisi JE, Goldman MS, Meyer FB. Cortical petechial hemorrhage, leukoencephalopathy, and subacute dementia associated with seizures due to cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Mayo Clin Proc 1995;70:477-480
45. Gray F, Vinters HV, Le Noan H, Salama J, Delaporte P, Poirier J. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy and granulomatous angiitis: immunohistochemical study using antibodies to the Alzheimer a4 peptide. Hum Pathol 1990;21:1290-1293
46. Mandybur TI, Balko G. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy with granulomatous angiitis ameliorated by steroid-cytoxan treatment. Clin Neuropharmacol 1992;15:241-247
47. Fountain NB, Eberhard DA. Primary angiitis of the central nervous system associated with cerebral amyloid angiopathy: report of two cases and review of the literature. Neurology 1996;46:190-197
48. Spaar F, Goebel H, Volles E, Wickboldt J. Tumor-like amyloid formation (amyloidoma) in the brain. J Neurol 1981;224:171-182
49. Osumi AK, Tien RD, Felsberg GJ, Rosenbloom M. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy presenting as a brain mass. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1995;16:911-915
50. Smith EE, Gurol ME, Eng JA, et al. White matter lesions, cognition, and recurrent hemorrhage in lobar intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology 2004;63:1606-1612
51. Hart RG, Boop BS, Anderson DC. Oral anticoagulants and intracranial hemorrhage: facts and hypotheses. Stroke 1995;26:1471-1477
52. Radberg JA, Olsson JE, Radberg CT. Prognostic parameters in spontaneous intracerebral hematomas with special reference to anticoagulant treatment. Stroke 1991;22:571-576
53. Rosand J, Eckman MH, Knudsen KA, Singer DE, Greenberg SM. The effect of warfarin and intensity of anticoagulation on outcome of intracerebral hemorrhage. Arch Intern Med 2004;164:880-884
54. Albers GW. Atrial fibrillation and stroke: three new studies, three remaining questions. Arch Intern Med 1994;154:1443-1448
55. Flibotte JJ, Hagan N, O'Donnell J, Greenberg SM, Rosand J. Warfarin, hematoma expansion, and outcome of intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology 2004;63:1059-1064
56. Hylek EM, Singer DE. Risk factors for intracranial hemorrhage in outpatients taking warfarin. Ann Intern Med 1994;120:897-902
57. Investigators SPiAF. Warfarin versus aspirin for prevention of thromboembolism in atrial fibrillation: stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation II study [see comments]. Lancet 1994;343:687-691
58. A randomized trial of anticoagulants versus aspirin after cerebral ischemia of presumed arterial origin. The Stroke Prevention in Reversible Ischemia Trial (SPIRIT) Study Group. Ann Neurol 1997;42:857-865
59. Smith EE, Rosand J, Knudsen KA, Hylek EM, Greenberg SM. Leukoaraiosis is associated with warfarin-related hemorrhage following ischemic stroke. Neurology 2002;59:193-197
60. Rosand J, Hylek EM, O'Donnell HC, Greenberg SM. Warfarin-associated hemorrhage and cerebral amyloid angiopathy: a genetic and pathologic study. Neurology 2000;55:947-951
61. Lee KR, Colon GP, Betz AL, Keep RF, Kim S, Hoff JT. Edema from intracerebral hemorrhage: the role of thrombin. J Neurosurg 1996;84:91-96
62. Xi G, Wagner KR, Keep RF, et al. Role of blood clot formation on early edema development after experimental intracerebral hemorrhage [see comments]. Stroke 1998;29:2580-2586
63. Ardizzone TD, Lu A, Wagner KR, Tang Y, Ran R, Sharp FR. Glutamate receptor blockade attenuates glucose hypermetabolism in perihematomal brain after experimental intracerebral hemorrhage in rat. Stroke 2004;35:2587-2591
64. Chen CJ. Gliotoxic action of glutamate on cultured astrocytes. J Neurochem 2000;75:1557-1565
65. Gong C, Hoff JT, Keep RF. Acute inflammatory reaction following experimental intracerebral hemorrhage in rat. Brain Res 2000;871:57-65
66. Broderick JP, Brott TG, Duldner JE, Tomsick T, Huster G. Volume of intracerebral hemorrhage: a powerful and easy-to-use predictor of 30-day mortality. Stroke 1993;24:987-993
67. Hemphill JC III, Bonovich DC, Besmertis L, Manley GT, Johnston SC. The ICH score: a simple, reliable grading scale for intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 2001;32:891-897
68. Brott T, Broderick J, Kothari R, et al. Early hemorrhage growth in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 1997;28:1-5
69. Kazui S, Naritomi H, Yamamoto H, Sawada T, Yamaguchi T. Enlargement of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: incidence and time course. Stroke 1996;27:1783-1787
70. Mayer SA, Lignelli A, Fink ME, et al. Perilesional blood flow and edema formation in acute intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 1998;29:1791-1798
71. Rosenberg GA, Navratil M. Metalloproteinase inhibition blocks edema in intracerebral hemorrhage in the rat. Neurology 1997;48:921-926
72. Mayer SA. Ultra-early hemostatic therapy for intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 2003;34:224-229
73. Mayer S. Safety and feasibility of recombinant factor VIIA for acute intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 2005;36:74-79
74. Mayer S, Brun N, Begtrup K, et al. Recombinant activated factor VII for acute intracerebral hemorrhage. N Engl J Med 2005;352:777-785
75. Hedner U. Clinical use of recombinant FVIIa (rFVIIa). Transfus Sci 1998;19:163-176
76. Monroe DM, Hoffman M, Oliver JA, Roberts HR. A possible mechanism of action of activated factor VII independent of tissue factor. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 1998;9(suppl 1):S15-S20
77. Gebel JM Jr, Jauch EC, Brott TG, et al. Natural history of perihematomal edema in patients with hyperacute spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 2002;33:2631-2635
78. Wagner KR, Xi G, Hua Y, et al. Lobar intracerebral hemorrhage model in pigs: rapid edema development in perihematomal white matter. Stroke 1996;27:490-497
79. Lee KR, Betz AL, Kim S, Keep RF, Hoff JT. The role of the coagulation cascade in brain edema formation after intracerebral hemorrhage. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1996;138:396-400
80. Lee K, Betz A, Keep R, Chenevert T, Kim S, Hoff J. Intracerebral infusion of thrombin as a cause of brain edema. J Neurosurg 1995;83:1045-1050
81. Song EC, Chu K, Jeong SW, et al. Hyperglycemia exacerbates brain edema and perihematomal cell death after intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 2003;34:2215-2220
82. Kothari RU, Brott T, Broderick JP, et al. The ABCs of measuring intracerebral hemorrhage volumes. Stroke 1996;27:1304-1305
83. Broderick JP, Adams HP, Barsan W, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 1999;30:905-915
84. Passero S, Ciacci G, Ulivelli M. The influence of diabetes and hyperglycemia on clinical course after intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology 2003;61:1351-1356
85. Ropper A. Management of intracranial hypertension and mass effect. In: Ropper A, ed. Neurological and Neurosurgical Intensive Care. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2004:26-51
86. Rosand J, Eskey C, Chang Y, Gonzalez RG, Greenberg SM, Koroshetz WJ. Dynamic single-section CT demonstrates reduced cerebral blood flow in acute intracerebral hemorrhage. Cerebrovasc Dis 2002;14:214-220
87. Kidwell CS, Saver JL, Mattiello J, et al. Diffusion-perfusion MR evaluation of perihematomal injury in hyperacute intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology 2001;57:1611-1617
88. Butcher KS, Baird T, MacGregor L, Desmond P, Tress B, Davis S. Perihematomal edema in primary intracerebral hemorrhage is plasma derived. Stroke 2004;35:1879-1885
89. Zazulia AR, Diringer MN, Videen TO, et al. Hypoperfusion without ischemia surrounding acute intracerebral hemorrhage. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2001;21:804-810
90. Zazulia AR, Diringer MN, Videen TO, Aiyagari V, Deibert E, Powers WJ. Acute intracerebral hemorrhage does not produce peri-clot cerebral ischemia [abstract]. Neurology 2000;54(suppl 3):A261
91. Powers WJ, Zazulia AR, Videen TO, et al. Autoregulation of cerebral blood flow surrounding acute (6 to 22 hours) intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology 2001;57:18-24
92. Vespa PM, O'Phelan K, Shah M, et al. Acute seizures after intracerebral hemorrhage: a factor in progressive midline shift and outcome. Neurology 2003;60:1441-1446
93. Boeer A, Voth E, Henze T, Prange HW. Early heparin therapy in patients with spontaneous intracerebral haemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1991;54:466-467
94. Greenberg S, Schneider A, Pettigrew L. Phase II study of cerebral, a candidate treatment for intracerebral hemorrhage related to cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Neurology 2004;62:A102
95. Rosand J, Greenberg SM. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Neurologist 2000;6:315-325
96. Eckman MH, Rosand J, Knudsen KA, Singer DE, Greenberg SM. Can patients be anticoagulated after intracerebral hemorrhage? A decision analysis. Stroke 2003;34:1710-1716
97. O'Donnell HC, Rosand J, Knudsen KA, et al. Apolipoprotein E genotype and the risk of recurrent lobar intracerebral hemorrhage [see comments]. N Engl J Med 2000;342:240-245
98. Boos CJ, More S. Anticoagulation for non-valvular atrial fibrillation: towards a new beginning with ximelagatran. Curr Control Trials Cardiovasc Med 2004;5:3
99. Waldo A. New possibilities in anticoagulant management of atrial fibrillation. Rev Cardiovasc Med 2004;5(suppl 5):S30-S38
100. The Executive Steering Committee on Behalf of the SPORTIF III Investigators. Stroke prevention with the oral direct thrombin inhibitor ximelagatran compared with warfarin in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation (SPORTIF III): randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2003;362:1691-1698
101. The Executive Steering Committee on Behalf of the SPORTIF V Investigators. Stroke prevention using the oral direct thrombin inhibitor ximelagatran in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation (SPORTIF V) [abstract]. Circulation 2003;108:2723
102. Hill MD, Silver FL, Austin PC, Tu JV. Rate of stroke recurrence in patients with primary intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 2000;31:123-127