Cortical dysplasia and epilepsy: Animal models

Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology

Volumn 548, Issue , 2004, Pages 145-174

  Schwartzkroin, Philip A ^b   Roper, Steven N ^a   Wenzel, H Jurgen ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID RECEPTOR; ACTIN; AMPA RECEPTOR; DOUBLECORTIN; FILAMIN; GLUTAMATE RECEPTOR 1; GLUTAMATE RECEPTOR 2; GLUTAMATE RECEPTOR 3; GLUTAMATE TRANSPORTER; HAMARTIN; INTEGRIN; MESSENGER RNA; METHYLAZOXYMETHANOL ACETATE; METHYLMERCURY; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR; PRESENILIN 1; PRESENILIN 2; SYNAPTOPHYSIN; TUBERIN;

AGYRIA; APOPTOSIS; ASTROCYTOMA; BRAIN CORTEX; BRAIN DEVELOPMENT; BRAIN INJURY; CELL AGGREGATION; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL DIVISION; CELL LOSS; CELL MATURATION; CELL MIGRATION; CELL POPULATION; CELL PROLIFERATION; CELL SHAPE; CELL SIZE; CELL SPECIFICITY; CELL STRUCTURE; CELL TYPE; CEREBELLUM HYPOPLASIA; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CHROMOSOME 16; CHROMOSOME 17; CHROMOSOME 17P; CHROMOSOME 9; CHROMOSOME XQ; COBBLESTONE LISSENCEPHALY; CORTICAL DYSPLASIA; CYTOMEGALY; DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EPILEPSY; EPILEPTOGENESIS; GENE MUTATION; GENETIC MANIPULATION; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GIANT CELL; GLIA CELL; GRAY MATTER; HEMIPARESIS; HEMISPHERE; HETEROTOPIA; HUMAN; HUMAN VERSUS ANIMAL COMPARISON; INFANTILE SPASM; INTRACTABLE EPILEPSY; LENNOX GASTAUT SYNDROME; MENTAL DEFICIENCY; MICROGYRIA; MILLER DIEKER SYNDROME; NEOCORTEX; NERVE CELL; NISSL SUBSTANCE; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PACHYGYRIA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN INTERACTION; REVIEW; SCHIZENCEPHALY; SEIZURE; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SPATIAL ORIENTATION; SPROUTING; STEM CELL; SUBICULUM; SYNAPTOGENESIS; TUBEROUS SCLEROSIS; WALKER WARBURG SYNDROME; WHITE MATTER; X LINKED MENTAL RETARDATION;

ACRONICTA LEPORINA; ANIMALIA;

EID: 3242780875     PISSN: 00652598     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4757-6376-8_12     Document Type: Review

References (167)

1. Allen KM, Walsh CA. Genes that regulate neuronal migration in the cerebral cortex. Epilepsy Res 1999; 36:143-154.
2. Allendoerfer KL, Shatz CJ. The subplate, a transient neocortical structure: its role in the development of connections between thalamus and cortex. Ann Rev Neurosci 1994; 17:185-218.
3. Anderson SA, Eisenstat DD, Shi L et al. Interneuron migration from basal forebrain to neocortex: dependence on DLX genes. Science 1997; 278:474-476.
4. Angevine JB, Sidman RL. Autoradiographic study of the cell migration during histogenesis of the cerebral cortex in the mouse. Nature 1961; 192:766-768.
5. Babb TL, Ying Z, Mikuni N et al. Brain plasticity and cellular mechanisms of epileptogenesis in human and experimental cortical dysplasia. Epilepsia 2000; 41(Suppl 6):S76-S81.
6. Baraban SC, Schwartzkroin PA. Electrophysiology of CA1 pyramidal neurons in an animal model of neuronal migration disorders: prenatal methylazoxymethanol treatment. Epilepsy Res 1995; 22:145-156.
7. Baraban SC, Schwartzkroin PA. Flurothyl seizure susceptibility in rats following prenatal methylazoxymethanol treatment. Epilepsy Res 1996; 23:189-194.
8. Baraban SC, Wenzel HJ, Hochman DW et al. Characterization of heterotopic cell clusters in the hippocampus of rats exposed to methylazoxymethanol in utero. Epilepsy Res 2000; 39:87-102.
9. Barkovich AJ, Chuang SH, Norman D. MR of neuronal migration anomalies. AJNR 1987; 8:1009-1017.
10. Barkovich AJ, Gressens P, Evrard P. Formation, maturation and disorders of brain neocortex. AJNR 1992; 13:423-446.
11. Barkovich AJ, Jackson Jr DE, Boyer RS. Band heterotopias: a newly recognized neuronal migration anomaly. Radiology 1989; 171:455-458.
12. Barkovich AJ, Kjos BO. Schizencephaly: correlation of clinical findings with MR characteristics. AJNR 1992; 13:85-94.
13. Barkovich AJ, Kuzniecky RI, Dobyns WB et al. A classification scheme for malformations of cortical development. Neuropediatrics 1996; 27:59-63.
14. Barkovich AJ, Kuzniecky RI, Jackson GD et al. Classification system for malformations of cortical development: Update 2001. Neurology 2001; 57:2168-2178.
15. Barkovich AJ, Rowley H, Bollen A. Correlation of prenatal events with the development of polymicrogyria. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1995; 16(suppl 4):822-827.
16. Barth PG. Disorders of neuronal migration. Can J Neurol Sci 1987; 14:1-16.
17. Bayer SA, Altman J, Russo RJ. Time tables of neurogenesis in human brain based on experimentally determined patterns in the rat. Neurotoxicology 1993; 14:83-144.
18. Bordey A, Lyons SA, Hablitz JJ et al. Electrophysiological characteristics of reactive astrocytes in experimental conical dysplasia. J Neurophysiol 2001; 85:1719-1731.
19. Brunelli S, Faiella A, Capra V et al. Germline mutations in the homeobox gene EMX2 in patients with severe schizencephaly. Nat Genet 1996; 12:94-96.
20. Cahana A, Escamez T, Nowakowski RS et al. Targeted mutagenesis of LIS1 disrupts cortical development and LIS1 homodimerization. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001; 98:6429-6434.
21. Castro PA, Cooper EC, Lowenstein DH et al. Hippocampal heterotopia lack functional Kv4.2 potassium channels in the methylazoxymethanol model of cortical malformations and epilepsy. J Neurosci 2001; 21:6626-6634.
22. Caviness Jr VS, Hatten ME, McConnell et al. Developmental neuropathology and childhood epilepsies. In: Schwartzkroin PA, Moshe SL, Noebels JL, Swann JW, eds, Brain development and epilepsy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995:94-121.
23. Caviness Jr VS, Sidman RL. Time of origin of corresponding cell classes in the cerebral cortex of normal and reeler mutant mice: an autoradiographic analysis. J Comp Neurol 1973; 148:141-151.
24. Chae T, Kwon YT, Bronson R et al. Mice lacking p35, a neuronal specific activator of Cdk5, display cortical lamination defects, seizures, and adult lethality. Neuron 1997; 18:29-42.
25. Chen Z-F, Schottler F, Bertam E et al. Distribution and initiation of seizure activity in a rat brain with subcortical band heterotopia. Epilepsia 2000; 41:493-501.
26. Chevassus-au-Louis N, Ben-Ari Y, Vergnes M. Decreased seizure threshold and more rapid rate of kindling in rats with cortical malformation induced by prenatal treatment with methylazoxymethanol. Brain Res 1998; 812:252-255.
27. Chevassus-au-Louis N, Congar P, Represa A et al. Neuronal migration disorders: heterotopic neocortical neurons in CA1 provide a bridge between the hippocampus and the neocortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998; 95:10263-10268.
28. Chevassus-au-Louis N, Rafiki A, Jorquera I et al. Neocortex in the hippocampus: an anatomical and functional study of CA1 heterotopias after prenatal treatment with methylazoxymethanol in rats. J Comp Neurol 1998; 394:520-536.
29. Chevassus-au-Louis N, Baraban SC, Gaiarsa J-L et al. Cortical malformations and epilepsy: new insights from animal models. Epilepsia 1999; 40:811-821.
30. Chevassus-au-Louis N, Jorquera I, Ben-Ari Y et al. Abnormal connections in the malformed cortex of rats with prenatal treatment with methylazoxymethanol may support hyperexcitability. Dev Neurosci 1999; 21:385-392.
31. Choi BH, Lapham LW, Amin-Zaki L et al. Abnormal neuronal migration, deranged cerbral cortical organization, and diffuse white matter astrocytosis of human fetal brain: a major effect of methylmercury poisoining in utero. J Neuropath Exp Neurol 1978; 37:719-733.
32. Chong SS, Pack SD, Roschke AV et al. A revision of the lissencephaly and Miller-Dieker syndrome critical regions in chromosome 17p13.3. Hum Mol Genet 1997; 6:147-155.
33. Colacitti C, Sancini G, Franceschetti S et al. Altered connections between neocortical and heterotopic areas in methylazoxymethanol-treated rat. Epilepsy Res 1998; 32:49-62.
34. Copp AJ, Harding BN. Neuronal migration disorders in humans and in mouse models - an overview. Epilepsy Res 1999; 36:133-141.
35. Cotter DR, Honavar M, Everall I. Focal cortical dysplasia: a neuropathological and developmental perspective. Epilepsy Res 1999; 36:155-164.
36. Cotter D, Honavar M, Lovestone S et al. Disturbance of Notch-1 and Wnt signaling proteins in neuroglial balloon cells and abnormal large neurons in focal cortical dysplasia in human cortex. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1999; 98:465-472.
37. Cowan D, Geller LM. Long-term pathological effects of prenatal X-irradiation on the central nervous system of the rat. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1960; 19:488-527.
38. A receptor subunit mRNA in cortical dysplasia. Neurology 2001; 56:906-913.
39. Crino PB, Eberwine J. Cellular and molecular basis of cerebral dysgenesis. J Neurosci Res 1997; 50:907-916.
40. Crino PB, Henske EP. New developments in the neurobiology of the tuberous sclerosis complex. Neurology 1999; 53:1384-1390.
41. Crino PB, Jin H, Shumate MD et al. Increased expression of the neuronal glutamate transporter (EAAT3/EAAC1) in hippocampal and neocortical epilepsy. Epilepsia 2002; 43:211-218.
42. Crino PB, Trojanowski JQ, Dichter MA et al. Embryonic neuronal markers in tuberous sclerosis: Single-cell moeluclar pathology. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93:14152-14157.
43. Crino PB, Trojanowski JQ, Eberwine J. Internexin, MAP1B, and nestin in cortical dysplasia as markers of developmental maturity. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1997; 93:619-627.
44. Cusmai R, Wheless JW, Berkovic S et al. Genetic and neuroradiological heterogeneity of double cortex syndrome. Ann Neurol 2000; 47:265-9.
45. D'Arcangelo G, Miao GG, Chen S-C et al. A protein related to extracellular matrix proteins deleted in the mouse mutant reeler. Nature 1995; 374:719-723.
46. DeCarlos JA, Lopez-Mascaraque L, Valverde F. Dynamics of cell migration from the lateral ganglionic eminence in the rat. J Neurosci 1996; 16:8313-8323.
47. DeFazio RA, Hablitz JJ. Reduction of zolpidem sensitivity in a freeze lesion model of neocortical dysgenesis. J Neurophysiol 1999; 81:404-407.
48. DeFazio RA, Hablitz JJ. Alterations in NMDA receptors in a rat model of cortical dysplasia. J Neurophysiol 2000; 83:315-321.
49. des Portes V, Pinard JM, Billuart P et al. A novel CNS gene required for neuronal migration and involved in X-linked subcortical laminar heterotopia and lissencephaly syndrome. Cell 1998; 92:51-61.
50. DiCunto F, Imarisio S, Hirsch E et al. Defective neurogenesis in citron kinase knockout mice by altered cytokinesis and massive apoptosis. Neuron 2000; 28:115-127.
51. Dobyns WB, Andermann E, Andermann F et al. X-linked malformations of neuronal migrations. Neurology 1996; 47:331-339.
52. Dobyns WD, Ledbetter DH. Clinical and molecular studies in 62 patients with type I lissencephaly. Ann Neurol 1990; 28:240.
53. Dobyns WB, Reiner O, Carrozzo R et al. Lissencephaly. A human brain malformation associated with deletion of the LIS1 gene located at chromosome 17p3. JAMA 1993; 270:2838-2842.
54. Duong T, De-Rosa MJ, Poukens V et al. Neuronal cytoskeletal abnormalities in human cerebral cortical dysplasia. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1994; 87:493-503.
55. Dvorak K, Feit J. Migration of neuroblasts through partial necrosis of the cerebral cortex in newborn rats: contribution to the problems of morphological development and developmental period of cerebral microgyria. Acta Neuropathol 1977; 38:203-212.
56. Eksioglu YZ, Sheffer IE, Cardenas P et al. Periventricular heterotopia: an X-linked dominant epilepsy locus causing aberrant cerebral cortical development. Neuron 1996; 16:77-87.
57. European Chromosome-16 Tuberous Sclerosis Consortium. Identification and characterization of the tuberous sclerosis gene on chromosome 16. Cell 1993; 75:1305-1315.
58. Farrell MA, DeRosa MJ, Curran JG et al. Neuropathologic findings in cortical resections (including hemispherectomies) performed for the treatment of intractable childhood epilepsy. Acta Neuropathol 1992; 83:246-259.
59. Feng Y, Walsh CA. Protein-protein interactions, cytoskeletal regulation and neuronal migration. Nature Rev Neurosci 2001; 2:408-416.
60. Ferrer I, Catala I. Unlayered polymicrogyria: structural and developmental aspects. Anat Embryol 1991; 184:517-528.
61. Fleck MW, Hirotsune S, Gambello MJ et al. Hippocampal abnormalities and enhanced excitability in a murine model of human lissencephaly. J Neurosci 2000; 20:2439-2450.
62. Fox JW. Mutations in filamin 1 prevents migration of cerebral cortical neurons in human periventricular heteropia. Neuron 1998; 21:1315-1325.
63. Francis F, Koulakoff A, Boucher D et al. Doublecortin is a developmentally regulated, microtubule-associated protein expressed in migrating and differentiating neurons. Neuron 1999; 23:247-256.
64. Gelot A, Billette de Villemeur T, Bordarier C et al. Developmental aspects of type II lissencephaly. Comparative study of dysplastic lesions in fetal and post-natal brains. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1995; 89:72-84.
65. Germano IM, Sperber EF. Increased seizure susceptibility in adult rats with neuronal migration disorders. Brain Res 1997; 777:219-222.
66. Germano IM, Zhang YF, Sperber EF et al. Neuronal migration disorders increase susceptibility to hyperthermia-induced seizures in developing rats. Epilepsia 1996; 37:902-210.
67. Gillies K, Price DJ. The fates of cells in the developing cerebral cortex of normal and methylazoxymethanol acetate-lesioned mice. Eur J Neurosci 1993; 5:73-84.
68. Gilmore EC, Ohshima T, Goffinet AM et al. Cyclin-dependent kinase 5-deficient mice demonstrate novel developmental arrest in cerebral cortex. J Neurosci 1998; 18:6370-7.
69. Gleeson JG, Allen KM, Fox JW et al. Doublecortin, a brain-specific gene mutated in human X-linked lissencephaly and double cortex syndrome, encodes a putative signaling protein. Cell 1998; 92:63-72.
70. Gleeson JG, Lin PT, Flanagan LA et al. Doublecortin is a microtubule-associated protein and is expressed widely by migrating neurons. Neuron 1999; 23:257-271.
71. Gleeson JG, Luo RF, Grant PE et al. Genetic and neuroradiological heterogeneity of double cortex syndrom. Ann Neurol 2000; 47:265-269.
72. Gleeson JG, Walsh CA. Neuronal migration disorders: from genetic diseases to developmental mechanisms. Trends Neurosci 2000; 23:352-359.
73. Gleeson JG. Neuronal migration disorders. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 2001; 7:167-171.
74. Golden JA. Cell migration and cerebral cortical development. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2001; 27: 22-28.
75. Granata T, Farina L, Faiella A et al. Familial schizencephaly associated with EMX2 mutation. Neurology 1997; 48:1403-1406.
76. Haas CA, Dudeck O, Kirsch M et al. Role for reelin in the development of granule cell dispersion in temporal lobe epilepsy. J Neurosci 2002; 22:5797-5802.
77. Hablitz JJ, DeFazio RA. Altered receptor subunit expression in rat neocortical malformations. Epilepsia 2000; 41(Suppl 6):S82-S85.
78. Hannan AJ, Servotte S, Katsnelson A et al. Characterization of nodular neuronal heterotopia in children. Brain 1999; 122:219-238.
79. Hirabayashi S, Binnie CD, Janota I et al. Surgical treatment of epilepsy due to cortical dysplasia: clinical and EEG findings. J Neurol Neurosurg Psych 1992; 56:765-770.
80. Hirotsune S, Fleck MW, Gambello MJ et al. Graded reduction of Pafahb1 (LIS1) activity results in neuronal migration defects and early embryonic lethality. Nat Genet 1998; 19:333-339.
81. Hong SE, Shugart YY, Huang DT et al. Autosomal recessive lissencephaly with cerebellar hypoplasia is associated with human RELN mutations. Nat Genet 2000; 26:93-96.
82. Jacobs KM, Gutnick MJ, Prince DA. Hyperexcitability in a model of cortical maldevelopment. Cereb Cortex 1996; 6:514-523.
83. Jacobs KM, Hwang BJ, Prince DA. Focal epileptogenesis in a rat model of polymicrogyria. J Neurophysiol 1999; 81:159-173.
84. Jacobs KM, Kharazia VN, Prince DA. Mechanisms underlying epileptogenesis in cortical malformations. Epilepsy Res 1999; 36:165-188.
85. Jacobs KM, Mogensen M, Warren Eet al. Experimental microgyri disrupt the barrel field pattern in rat somatosensory cortex. Cereb Cortex 1999; 9:733-744.
86. Jellinger K, Rett A. Agyria-pachygyria (lissencephaly syndrome). Neuropediatrie 1976; 7:66-91.
87. Juhasz C, Chugani HT, Muzik O et al. Hypotheses from functional neuroimaging studies. In Schwartzkroin PA, Rho JM eds, Epilepsy, Infantile spasms, and Developmental Encephalopathy. San Diego: Academic Press, 2002:37-55.
88. Kakita A, Wakabayashi K, Su M et al. Experimentally induced leptomeningeal glioneuronal heterotopia and underlying cortical dysplasia of the lateral limbic area in rats treated transplacentally with methylmercury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2001; 60:767-777.
89. Kerfoot C, Vinters HV, Mathern GW. Cerebral cortical dysplasia: giant neurons show potential for increased excitation and axonal plasticity. Dev Neurosci 1999; 21:260-270.
90. Koh S, Jayakar P, Dunoyer C et al. Epilepsy surgery in children with tuberous sclerosis complex: presurgical evaluation and outcome. Epilepsia 2000; 41:1206-1213.
91. Kondo S, Najm I, Kunieda T et al. Electroencephalographic characterization of an adult rat model of radiation-induced cortical dysplasia. Epilepsia 2001; 42:1221-1227.
92. Kwon YT, Tsai L-H. A novel disruption of cortical development in p35 -/- mice distinct from reeler. J Comp Neurol 1998; 395:510-522.
93. Lee KS, Collins JL, Anzivino MJ et al. Heterotopic neurogenesis in a rat with cortical heterotopia. J Neurosci 1998; 18:9365-9375.
94. Lee KS, Schottler F, Collins JL et al. A genetic animal model of human neocortical heterotopia associated with seizures. J Neurosci 1997; 17:6236-6242.
95. Leventer RJ, Phelan EM, Coleman LT et al. Clinical and imaging features of cortical malformations in childhood. Neurology 1999; 53:715-722.
96. Luhmann HJ, Raabe K, Qu M et al. Charactrization of neuronal migration disorders in neocrotical structures: extracellular in vitro recordings. Eur J Neurosci 1998; 10:3085-3094.
97. Luskin MB, Shatz CJ. Neurogenesis of the cat's primary visual cortex. J Comp Neurol 1985; 242: 611-631.
98. Marin-Padilla M. Developmental neuropathology and impact of perinatal brain damage. I: Hemorrhagic lesions of neocortex. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1996; 55:758-773.
99. Marin-Padilla M. Developmental neuropathology and impact of perinatal brain damage. II: White matter lesions of the neocortex. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1997; 56:219-235.
100. Marin-Padilla M. Developmental neuropathology and impact of perinatal brain damage. III: Gray matter lesions of the neocortex. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1999; 58:407-429.
101. Marin-Padilla M, Tsai R J-C, King MA et al. Abnormalities of neuronal morphology in an animal model of cortical dysgenesis with a comparison to human acquired cortical dysplasia. Epilepsia 2002; 43(Suppl 7):24.
102. Mathern GW, Cepdea C, Hurst RS et al. Neurons recorded from pediatric epilepsy surgery patients with cortical dysplasia. Epilepsia 2000; 41(Suppl 6):S162-S167.
103. McConnell S. Constructing the cerebral cortex: neurogenesis and fate determination. Neuron 1995; 15:761-768.
104. Meyer G, Schaaps JP, Moreau L et al. Embryonic and early fetal development of the human neocortex. J Neurosci 2000; 20:1858-1868.
105. Mischel PS, Nguyen LP, Vinters HV. Cerebral cortical dysplasia associated with pediatric epilepsy. Review of neuropathologic features and proposal for a grading system. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1995; 54:137-153.
106. Norman MG, Roberts M, Sirois J et al. Lissencephaly. Can J Neurol Sci 1976; 3:39-46.
107. Ogawa M, Miyata T, Nakajima K et al. The reeler gene-associated antigen on Cajal-Retzius neurons is a crucial molecule for laminar organization of cortical neurons. Neuron 1995; 14:899-912.
108. Palmini A. Disorders of cortical development. Curr Opin Neurol 2000; 13:183-192.
109. Palmini A, Andermann F, Olivier A et al. Focal neuronal migration disorders and intractable epilepsy: a study of 30 patients. Ann Neurol 1991; 30:741-749.
110. Palmini A, Andermann E, Andermann F. Prenatal events and genetic factors in epileptic patients with neuronal migration disorders. Epilepsia 1994; 35:965-973.
111. Palmini A, Gambardella A, Andermann F et al. Operative strategies for patients with cortical dysplastic lesions and intractable epilepsy. Epilepsia 199b; 35(Suppl 6):S57-S71.
112. Palmini A, Gambardella A, Andermann F et al. Intrinsic epileptogenicity of human dysplastic cortex as suggested by corticography and surgical results. Ann Neurol 1995; 37:476-487.
113. Parent JM, Lowenstein DY. Seizure-induced neurogenesis: are more new neurons good for an adult brain? Prog Brain Res 2002; 135:121-131.
114. Pavone L, Curatolo P, Rizzo R et al. Epidermal nevus syndrome: a neurologic variant with hemimegalencephaly, gyral malformation, mental retardation, seizures, and facial hemihypertrophy. Neurology 1991; 41:266-271.
115. Peckham NH, Choi BH. Abnormal neuronal distribution within the cerebral cortex after prenatal methylmercury intoxication. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1988; 76:222-226.
116. Pilz DT, Macha ME, Precht KS et al. Fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis with LIS1 specific probes reveals a high deletion mutation rate in isolated lissencephaly sequence. Genet Med 1998; 1:29-33.
117. Pilz D, Stoodley N, Golden JA. Neuronal migration, cerebral cortical development, and cerebral cortical anomalies. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2002; 61:1-11.
118. Pinard JM, Motte J, Chiron C et al. Subcortical laminar heterotopia and lissencephaly in two families: a single X-linked dominant gene. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 1994; 57:914-920.
119. Pleasure SJ, Anderson S, Hevner R et al. Cell migration from the ganglionic eminences is required for the development of hippocampal GABAergic interneurons. Neuron 2000; 28:727-740.
120. Prayson RA, Estes ML. Cortical dysplasia: a histopathologic study of 52 cases of partial lobectomy in patients with epilepsy. Hum Pathol 1995; 26:493-500.
121. Prince DA, Jacobs KM, Salin PA et al. Chronic focal neocortical epileptogenesis: does disinhibition play a role? Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1997; 75:500-507.
122. Rakic P. Mode of cell migration to the superficial layers of fetal monkey neocortex. J Comp Neurol 1972; 145:61-83.
123. Rakic P. Timing of major ontogenetic events in the visual cortex of the rhesus monkey. In: Buchwald NA, Brazier MA, eds. Brain Mechanisms in Mental Retardation. New York: Academic Press, 1975:3-40.
124. Rakic P. Specification of cerebral cortical areas. Science 1988; 241:170-176.
125. A receptor subunits in widespread brain regions in the freeze-lesion model of focal cortical malformations. J Neurosci 2000; 20:5045-5053.
126. Reiner O, Carrozzo R, Shen Y et al. Isolation of a Miller-Dicker lissencephaly gene containing G protein β-subunit-like repeats. Nature 1993; 364:717-721.
127. Ricci S, Cusmai R, Fariello G et al. Double cortex. A neuronal migration anomaly as a possible cause of Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Arch Neurol 1992; 49:61-4.
128. Richardson EP. Pathology of tuberous sclerosis. Ann NY Acad Sci 1991; 615:128-139.
129. Rio C, Rieff HI, Qi P et al. Neuregulin and erbB receptors play a critical role in neuronal migration. Neuron 1997; 19:39-50.
130. Robain O, Floquet C, Heldt N et al. Hemimegalencephaly: a clinicopathological study of four cases. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 1988:125-135.
131. Roberts MR, Bittman K, Li W-W et al. The flathead mutation causes CNS-specific developmental abnormalities and apoptosis. J Neurosci 2000; 20:2295-2306.
132. Roper SN, Abraham LA, Streit WJ. Exposure to in utero irradiation produces disruption of radial glia in rats. Dev Neurosci 1997; 19:521-528.
133. Roper SN, Eisenschenk S, King MA. Reduced density of parvalbumin- and calbindin D28k-immunoreactive neurons in experimental cortical dysplasia. Epilepsy Res 1999; 37:63-71.
134. Roper SN, Gilmore RL, Houser CR. Experimentally induced disorders of neuronal migration produce an increased propensity for electrographic seizures in rats. Epilepsy Res 1995; 21:205-219.
135. Roper SN, King MA, Abraham LA et al. Disinhibited in vitro neocortical slices containing experimentally induced cortical dysplasia demonstrate hyperexcitability. Epilepsy Res 1997; 26:443-449.
136. Rorke LB. A perspective: the role of disordered genetic control of neurogenesis in the pathogenesis of migration disorders. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1994; 53:105-117.
137. Saito Y, Mizuguchi M, Oka A et al. Fukutin protein is expressed in neurons of the normal developing human brain but is reduced in Fukuyama-type congenital muscular dystrophy brain. Ann Neurol 2000; 47:756-764.
138. Sancini G, Franceschetti S, Battaglia G et al. Dysplastic neocortex and subcortical heterotopias in methylazoxymethanol-treated rats: an intracellular study of identified pyramidal neurons. Neurosci Lett 1998; 246:181-185.
139. Santi MR, Golden JA. Periventricular heterotopia may result from radial glial fiber disruption. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2001; 60:856-862.
140. Sapir T, Elbaum M, Reiner O. Reduction of microtubule catastrophe events by LIS1, platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase subunit. EMBO J 1997; 16:6977-6984.
141. Sarkisian MR, Frenkel M, Li W et al. Altered interneuron development in the cerebral cortex of the flathead mutant. Cereb Cortex 2001; 11:734-743.
142. Sarkisian MR, Rattan S, D'Mello SR et al. Characterization of seizures in the flathead rat: a new genetic model of epilepsy in early postnatal development. Epilepsia 1999; 40:394-400.
143. Schauwecker PE. Complications associated with genetic background effects in models of experimental epilepsy. Prog Brain Res 2002; 135:139-148.
144. Schottler F, Fabiato H, Leland JM et al. Normotopic and heterotopic cortical representations of mystacial vibrissae in rats with subcortical band heterotopia. Neuroscience 2001; 108:217-235.
145. Schottler F, Couture D, Rao A et al. Subcortical connections of normotopic and heterotopic neurons in sensory and motor cortices of the tish mutant rat. J Comp Neurol 1998; 395:29-42.
146. Schwartzkroin PA, Walsh CA. Cortical malformations and epilepsy. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 2000; 6:268-280.
147. Singh SC. Ectopic neurons in the hippocampus of the postnatal rat exposed to methylazoxymethanol during foetal development. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1977; 44:197-202.
148. Spreafico R, Pasquier B, Minotti L et al. Immunocytochemical investigation on dysplastic human tissue from epileptic patients. Epilepsy Res 1998; 32:34-48.
149. Spreafico R, Tassi L, Colombo N et al. Inhibitory circuits in human dysplastic tissue. Epilepsia 2000; 41(Suppl 6):S168-S173.
150. Stewart RM, Richman DP, Caviness Jr VS. Lissencephaly and pachygyria: an architectonic and topographical analysis. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1975; 31:1-12.
151. Taylor DC, Falconer MA, Bruton CJ et al. Focal dysplasia of the cerebral cortex in epilepsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 1971; 34:369-387.
152. Tsai L-H, Delalle I, Caviness Jr VS et al. p35 is a neural-specific regulatory subunit of cyclin-dependent kinase 5. Nature 1994; 371:419-423.
153. Uher BF, Golden JA. Neuronal migration defects of the cerebral cortex: a destination debacle. Clin Genet 2000; 58:16-24.
154. Urbach H, Scheffler B, Heinrichsmeier T et al. Focal cortical dysplasia of Taylor's balloon cell type: A clinicopathological entity with characteristic neuroimaging and histopathological features and favorable postsurgical outcome. Epilepsia 2002; 43:33-40.
155. Vinters HV. Histopathology of brain tissue from patients with infantile spasms. In: Schwartzkroin PA, Rho JM, eds. Epilepsy, infantile spasms and developmental encephalopathy. San Diego: Academic Press, 2002:63-76.
156. Vinters HV, Fisher RS, Cornford FE et al. Morphological substrates of infantile spasms based on surgically resected cerebral tissue. Childs Nerv Syst 1992; 8:8-17.
157. Walsh CA. Neuronal identity, neuronal migration and epileptic disorders of the cerebral cortex. In: Schwartzkroin PA, Noebels JL, Moshe SL, Swann JW, eds. Brain Development and Epilepsy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995:122-143.
158. Walsh CA. Genetic malformations of the human cerebral cortex. Neuron 1999; 23:19-29.
159. Walsh CA, Cepko CL. Widespread disperson of neuronal clones across functional regions of the cerebral cortex. Science 1992; 255:434-440.
160. Wenzel HJ, Robbins CA, Tsai L-H et al. Abnormal morphological and functional organization of the hippocampus in a p35 mutant model of cortical dysplasia associated with spontaneous seizures. J Neurosci 2001; 21:983-998.
161. Yakovlev PI, Wadsworth RC. Schizencephalies. A study of the congenital clefts in the cerebral mantle. I. Clefts with fused lips. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1946; 5:116-130.
162. Yakovlev PI, Wadsworth RC. Schizencephalies. A study of the congenital clefts in the cerebral mande. II. Clefts with hydrocephalus and lips separated. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1946; 5:169-206.
163. Yeung RS. Tuberous sclerosis as an underlying basis for infantile spasm. In Schwartzkroin PA, Rho JM, eds. Epilepsy, infantile spasms and developmental encephalopathy. San Diego : Academic Press, 2002:315-332.
164. Yeung RS, Xiao GH, Jin F et al. Predisposition to renal carcinoma in the Eker rat is determined by germ-line mutation of the tuberous sclerosis 2 (TSC2) gene. Proc Natl Acad USA 1994; 91:11413-11416.
165. Yeung RS, Katsetos CD, Kleinszanto A. Subependymal astrocytic hamartomas in the Eker rat model of tuberous sclerosis. Am J Pathol 1997; 151(5):1477-1486.
166. Ying Z, Babb TL, Mikuni N et al. Selective coexpression of NMDAR2A/B and NMDAR1 subunits proteins in dysplastic neurons of human epileptic cortex. Exp Neurol 1999; 159:409-418.
167. Zhu WJ, Roper SN. Reduced inhibition in an animal model of cortical dysplasia. J Neurosci 2000; 20:8925-8931.