Severe exacerbations of asthma

Critical Care Nursing Quarterly

Volumn 27, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 207-230

  Corbridge, Susan J ^a   Corbridge, Thomas C ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT CHICAGO   (United States)

^b NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Acute asthma; Asthma exacerbations; Diagnosis; Management; Mechanical ventilation

Indexed keywords

ADRENALIN; AMINOPHYLLINE; ANTIASTHMATIC AGENT; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; BETA 2 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; CHOLINERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CORTICOSTEROID; FLUNISOLIDE; FORMOTEROL; HELIOX; HYDROCORTISONE; HYDROCORTISONE SODIUM SUCCINATE; IPRATROPIUM BROMIDE; LEUKOTRIENE RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; LEVALBUTEROL; MAGNESIUM SULFATE; METHYLPREDNISOLONE; METHYLPREDNISOLONE SODIUM SUCCINATE; METHYLXANTHINE DERIVATIVE; MONTELUKAST; NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKING AGENT; OXYGEN; PREDNISONE; SALBUTAMOL; SALMETEROL; SEDATIVE AGENT; TERBUTALINE; THEOPHYLLINE; UNINDEXED DRUG; ZAFIRLUKAST;

ACUTE DISEASE; ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; ASTHMA; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; DISEASE EXACERBATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG CHOICE; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG EFFICACY; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; HEALTH CARE DELIVERY; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HOSPITALIZATION; HUMAN; NAUSEA; NURSING; OUTPATIENT CARE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT CARE; PATIENT EDUCATION; REVIEW; TACHYCARDIA; TREMOR; VOMITING;

EID: 3242677903     PISSN: 08879303     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00002727-200407000-00002     Document Type: Review

References (216)

1. National Asthma Educaiton and Prevention Program. Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma: Expert Panel Report II. Bethesda, Md: National Institutes of Health; 1997. Publication No. 97-405.
2. Weiss KB, Gergen PJ, Hodgson TA. An economic evaluation of asthma in the United States. New Engl J Med. 1992;326:862.
3. Mannino DM, Homa DM, Akinbami LJ, et al. Surveillance for Asthma-United States, 1980-1999. MMWR. March 29, 2002;51:1-13.
4. McFadden ER Jr. Acute severe asthma: state of the art. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;168:740-759.
5. Barr RG, Woodruff PG, Clark S, Camargo C Jr. Sudden-onset asthma exacerbations: clinical features, response to therapy, and 2-week follow-up. Eur Respir J. 2000;15:266-273.
6. Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C. Rapid-onset asthma attack: a prospective cohort study about characteristics and responses to emergency department treatment. Chest. 2000;118:1547.
7. Wasserfallen JB, Schaller MD, Feihl F, et al. Sudden asphyxic asthma: a distinct entity? Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990;142:108.
8. Arnold AG, Lane DJ, Zapata E. The speed of onset and severity of acute severe asthma. Br J Dis Chest. 1982;76:157.
9. Rome LA, Lippmann ML, Dalsey WC, et al. Prevalence of cocaine use and its impact on asthma exacerbation in an urban population. Chest. 2000;117:1324-1329.
10. Cygan J, Trunsky M, Corbridge T. Inhaled heroin-induced status asthmaticus. Chest. 2000;117:272-275.
11. Krantz AJ, Hershow RC, Prachand N, et al. Heroin insufflation as a trigger for patients with life-threatening asthma. Chest 2003;123:510-517.
12. Rodrigo G, Rodrigo C. Rapid-onset asthma attack: a prospective cohort study about characteristics and response to emergency department treatment. Chest. 2000;118:1547.
13. Hogg JC. The pathology of asthma. Clin Chest Med. 1984;5:567.
14. Petty TL. Treat status asthmaticus three days before it occurs. J Intensive Care Med. 1989;4:135.
15. Marks GB, Heslop W, Yates DH. Prehospital management of exacerbations of asthma: relation to patient and disease characteristics. Respirology. 2000;5:45-50.
16. Pepe PE, Marini JJ. Occult positive end-expiratory pressure in mechanically ventilated patients with airflow obstruction: the auto-PEEP effect. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1982;126(1):166-170.
17. Nowak RM, Tomlanovich MC, Sarker DD, et al. Arterial blood gases and pulmonary function testing in acute bronchial asthma. Predicting patient outcomes. JAMA. 1983;12:8-83.
18. McFadden ER Jr, Hejal R. Asthma. Lancet. 1995;345:1215-1229.
19. McFadden ER Jr, Lyons HA. Arterial-blood gas tension in asthma. N Engl J Med. 1968;278:1027.
20. Keahey L, Bulloch B, Becker AB, et al. Initial oxygen saturation as a predictor of admission in children presenting to the ED with acute asthma. Ann Emerg Med. 2002;40:300-307.
21. Roca J, Ramis LI, Rodriguez-Roisin R, et al. Serial relationships between ventilation-perfusion inequality and spirometry in acute severe asthma requiring hospitalization. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988;137:1055-1061.
22. Ferrer A, Roca J, Wagner PD, et al. Airway obstruction and ventilation-perfusion relationships in acute severe asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993;147:579.
23. Permutt S, Wise RA. Mechanical interaction of respiration and circulation. In: Fishman A, ed. Handbook of Physiology. Vol 3. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1986:647.
24. Corbridge T, Hall JB. Pulmonary hypertension in status asthmaticus. In: Cosentino AM, Martin RJ, eds. Cardiothoracic Interrelationships in Clinical Practice. Armonk, NY: Futura Publishing Co Inc; 1997:137-156.
25. Scharf S, Brown R, Saunders N, et al. Effects of normal and loaded spontaneous inspiration on cardiovascular function. J Appl Physiol. 1979;47:582.
26. Scharf S, Brown R, Tow D, et al. Cardiac effects of increased lung volume and decreased pleural pressure. J Appl Physiol. 1979;47:257.
27. Knowles G, Clark T. Pulsus paradoxus as a valuable sign indicating severity of asthma. Lancet. 1973;2:1356.
28. Corbridge T, Hall JB. The assessment and management of status asthmaticus in adults. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;151:1296-1316.
29. Rubinfeld AR, Pain MC. Perception of asthma. Lancet 1976;1:882-884.
30. Manning HL, Schwartstein RM. Respiratory sensations in asthma: physiological and clinical implications. J Asthma. 2001;38:447-460.
31. Brenner BE, Abraham E, Simon RR. Position and diaphoresis in acute asthma. Am J Med. 1983;74:1005.
32. Shim CS, Williams MH. Relationship of wheezing to the severity of obstruction in asthma. Arch Intern Med. 1983;143:890.
33. Josephson GW, Kennedy HL, MacKenzie EJ. Cardiac dysrhythmias during the treatment of acute asthma: a comparison of two treatment regimens by a double blind protocol. Chest 1980;78:429.
34. Grossman J. The occurrence of arrhythmias in hospitalized asthma patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1976;57:310.
35. Kelsen SG, Kelsen DP, Fleegler BF, et al. Emergency room assessment and treatment of patients with acute asthma. Am J Med. 1978;64:622.
36. Rebuck AS, Read J. Assessment and management of severe asthma. Am J Med. 1971;51:788.
37. Rodrigo G, Rodrigo C. Assessment of the patient with acute asthma in the emergency department: a factor analytic study. Chest. 1993;104:1325.
38. Rea HH, Scragg R, Jackson R, et al. A case-controlled study of deaths from asthma. Thorax. 1986;41:833.
39. Greenberger PA, Patterson R. The diagnosis of potentially fatal asthma. N Engl Reg Allergy Proc. 1988;9:147.
40. Lowenthal M, Patterson R, Greenberger PA. The application of an asthma severity index in patients with potentially fatal asthma. Chest. 1993;104:1329.
41. Suissa S, Ernst P, Boivin JF, et al. A cohort analysis of excess mortality in asthma and the use of inhaled beta-agonists. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;149:604.
42. Levnson T, Greenberger PA, Donoghue ER, et al. Asthma deaths confounded by substance abuse: an assessment of fatal asthma. Chest. 1996;110:604.
43. Kikuchi Y, Okabe S, Tamura G, et al. Chemosensitivity and perception of dyspnea in patients with a history of near-fatal asthma. N Engl J Med. 1994;330:1329.
44. Fishman AP. Cardiac asthma - a fresh look at an old wheeze. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:1346.
45. Hall JB, Wood LDH. Management of the critically ill asthmatic patient. Med Clin North Am. 1990;74:779.
46. Hatch RT, Parker JM, Engler RJ. Wheezing, hypoxia and dyspnea in a 62-year-old woman. Ann Allergy. 1993;70:363-367.
47. Baughman RP, Loudon RC. Stridor: differentiation from wheezing or upper airway noise. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1989;139:1407.
48. Emerman CL, Cydulka RK. Effect of pulmonary function testing on the management of acute asthma. Arch Intern Med. 1995;155:2225-2228.
49. Shim CS, Williams MH Jr. Evaluation of the severity of asthma: patients versus physicians. Am J Med. 1980;68:11.
50. Lim TK, Ang SM, Rossing TH, et al. The effects of deep inhalation on maxmimal expiratory flow during intensive treatment of spontaneous asthmatic episodes. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1989;140:340.
51. Lemarchand P, Labrune S, Herer B, et al. Cardiorespiratory arrest following peak expiratory flow measurement during attack of asthma. Chest. 1991;100:1168.
52. Banner AS, Shah RS, Addington WW. Rapid prediction of need for hospitalization in acute asthma. JAMA. 1976;235:1337.
53. Fanta CH, Rossing TH, McFadden ER Jr. Emergency room treatment of asthma: relationships among therapeutic combinations, severity of obstruction and time course of response. Am J Med. 1982;72:416.
54. Rodrigo G, Rodrigo C. Early prediction of poor response in acute asthma patients in the emergency department. Chest. 1998;114:1016-1021.
55. Mountain RD, Sahn S. Clinical features and outcome in patients with acute asthma presenting with hypercapnia. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988;138:535.
56. O'Connell MB, Iber C. Continuous intravenous terbutaline infusions for adult patients with status asthmaticus. Ann Allergy. 1990;64:213.
57. Appel D, Rubenstein R, Shrager K, et al. Lactic acidosis in severe asthma. Am J Med. 1983;75:580.
58. Mountain RD, Heffner JE, Brackett NC. Acid-base disturbances in acute asthma. Chest. 1990;98:651.
59. Findley LJ, Sahn SA. The value of chest roentgenograms in acute asthma in adults. Chest. 1980;5:535.
60. Zieverink SE, Harper AP, Holden RW, et al. Emergency room radiography of asthma: an efficacy study. Radiology. 1982;145:27.
61. Sherman S, Skoney JA, Ravikrishnan KP. Routine chest radiographs in exacerbations of acute obstructive pulmonary disease. Arch Intern Med. 1989;149:2493.
62. White CS, Cole RP, Lubetsky HW, et al. Acute asthma: admission chest radiography in hospitalized adult patients. Chest. 1991;100:14.
63. Feil SB, Swartz MA, Glanz K, et al. Efficacy of short-term corticosteroid therapy in outpatient treatment of acute bronchial asthma. Am J Med. 1983;75:259.
64. Cydulka RK, Emerman CL. A pilot study of steroid therapy after emergency department treatment of acute asthma: is a taper needed? J Emerg Med. 1998;16:15-19.
65. Schuckman H, DeJulius DP, Blanda M, Gerson LW, DeJulius AJ, Rajaratnam M. Comparison of intramuscular triamcinolone and oral prednisone in the outpatient treatment of acute asthma: a randomized controlled trial. Ann Emerg Med. 1998;31:333-338.
66. Volovitz B, Bentur L, Finkelstein Y, et al. Effectiveness and safety of inhaled corticosteroids in controlling acute asthma attacks in children who were treated in the emergency department: a controlled comparative study with oral prednisone. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1998;102:605.
67. National Asthma Education and Prevention Program. Expert panel report. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma-update on selected topics 2002. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;110:S141.
68. Matz J, Emmett A, Richard K, Kalberg C. Addition of salmeterol to low-dose fluticasone versus higher-dose fluticasone: an analysis of asthma exacerbations. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;107:783.
69. Kelso TM, Self TH, Rumbak MJ, et al. Educational and long-term therapeutic intervention in the ED: effect on outcomes in adult indigent minority asthmatics. Am J Emerg Med. November 1995;13(6):632-637.
70. Weber EJ, Silverman RA, Callaham ML, et al. A prospective multicenter study of factors associated with hospital admission among adults with acute asthma. Am J Med. 2002;113:371-378.
71. Rossing TH, Fanta CH, McFadden ER. Effect of outpatient treatment of asthma with beta agonists on the response to sympathomimetics in an emergency room. Am J Med. 1983;75:781.
72. Rodrigo C, Rodrigo G. Therapeutic response patterns to high and cummulative doses of salbutamol in acute severe asthma. Chest 1998;113:593.
73. Strauss L, Hejal R, Galan G, Dixon L, McFadden ER. Observations of the effects of aerosolized albuterol in acute asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;155:454.
74. Korosec M, Novak RD, Myers E, et al. Salmeterol does not compromise the bronchodilator response to albuterol during acute episodes of asthma. Am J Med. 1999;107:209-213.
75. Rossing TH, Fanta CH, McFadden ER. Effect of outpatient treatment of asthma with beta agonists on the response to sympathomimetics in an emergency room. Am J Med. 1983;75:781.
76. Baramki D, Koester J, Anderson AJ, Borish L Modulation of T-cell function by R and S-isomers of albuterol: anti-inflammatory influences of R-isomers are negated by the presence of the S-isomer. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;109:449.
77. Dhand R, Goode M, Reid R, Fink JB, Fahey PJ, Tobin MJ. Preferential pulmonary retention of S-albuterol after inhalation of racemic albuterol. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160:1136.
78. Nelson H, Bensch G, Pleskow WW, et al. Improved bronchodilation with levalbuterol compared with racemic albuterol in patients with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1998;102:943.
79. Nowak R, Emerman CL, Schaefer K, et al. Levalbuterol compared with racemic albuterol in the treatment of acute asthma: results of a pilot study. Am J Emerg Med. 2004;22:29-36.
80. Carl JC, Myers TR, Kirchner L, Kercsmar CM. Comparison of racemic albuterol and levalbuterol for treatment of acute asthma. J Pediatr. 2003;143:731-736.
81. Peters JI, Shelledy DC, Jones AP, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled study to evaluate the role of salmeterol in the in-hospital management of asthma. Chest. 2000;118:313.
82. Idris AH, McDermott MF, Raucci JC, et al. Emergency department treatment of severe asthma: metered-dose inhaler plus holding chamber is equivalent in effectiveness to nebulizer. Chest. 1993;103:665.
83. Colacone A, Afilalo M, Wolkove N, et al. A comparison of albuterol administered by metered dose inhaler (and holding chamber) or wet nebulizer in acute asthma. Chest. 1993;104:835-841.
84. Kerem E, Levison H, Shuh S, et al. Efficacy of albuterol administered by nebulizer versus spacer device in children with acute asthma. J Pediatr. 1993;123:313-317.
85. Rodrigo C, Rodrigo G. Salbutamol treatment of acute severe asthma in the ED: MDI vs hand-held nebulizer. Am J Med. 1998;16:637.
86. McFadden ER Jr, Strauss L, Hejal R, et al. Comparison of two dosage regimens of albuterol in acute asthma. Am J Med. 1998;105:12.
87. Emerman CL, Cydulka RK, McFadden ER. Comparison of 2.5 mg vs 7.5 mg of inhaled albuterol in the treatment of acute asthma. Chest. 1999;115:92.
88. Cydulka RK, McFadden ER, Sarver JH, et al. Comparison of single 7.5 mg dose treatment vs sequential multidose 2.5 mg treatments with nebulized albuterol in the treatment of acute asthma. Chest. 2002;122:1982.
89. Newhouse MT, Chapman KR, McCallum AL, et al. Cardiovascular safety of high doses of inhaled fenoterol and albuterol in acute severe asthma. Chest. 1996;110:595.
90. Lipworth BJ, Clark RA, Dhillon DP, et al. Beta-adrenoceptor responses to high doses of inhaled salbutamol in patients with bronchial asthma. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1988;26:527-533.
91. Reisner C, Kotch A, Dworkin G. Continuous versus intermittent nebulization of albuterol in acute asthma: a randomized, prospective study. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1995;75:41-47.
92. Rudnitsky GS, Eberlein RS, Schoffstall JM, et al. Comparison of intermittent and continuously nebulized albuterol for treatment of asthma in an urban emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 1993;22:1842.
93. Lin RY, Astiz ME, Saxon JC, et al. Continuous versus intermittent albuterol nebulizaton in the treatment of acute asthma. Ann Emerg Med. 1993;22:1847.
94. Besbes-Ouanes L, Nouira S, Elatrous S, et al. Continuous versus intermittent nebulization of salbutamol in acute severe asthma: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Emerg Med. 2000;36:198.
95. Fanta CH, Rossing TH, McFadden ER. Treatment of acute asthma: is combination therapy with sympathomimetics and methylxanthines indicated. Am J Med. 1986;80:5.
96. Uden DL, Goetz, DR, Kohen DP, et al. Comparison of nebulized terbutaline and subcutaneous epinephrine in the treatment of acute asthma. Ann Emerg Med. 1985;14:229.
97. Becker AB, Nelson NA, Simons FER. Inhaled salbutamol (albuterol) vs injected epinephrine in the treatment of acute asthma in children. J Pediatr. 1983;102:465.
98. Cydulka R, Davison R, Grammer L, et al. The use of epinephrine in the treatment of older adult asthmatics. Ann Emerg Med. 1990;17:322.
99. Lawford P, Jones BMJ, Milledge JS. Comparison of intravenous and nebulised salbutamol in initial treatment of severe asthma. Br Med J. 1978;1:84.
100. Williams SJ, Winner SJ, Clark TJH. Comparison of inhaled and intravenous terbutaline in acute severe asthma. Thorax. 1981;36:629.
101. Bloomfield P, Carmichael J, Petrie GR, et al. Comparison of salbutamol given intravenously and by intermittent positive-pressure breathing in life-threatening asthma. Br Med J. 1979;1:848.
102. Salmeron S, Brochard L, Mal H, et al. Nebulized versus intravenous albuterol in hypercapnic acute asthma: a multicenter, double-blind, randomized study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;149:1466.
103. Stoodley RG, Aaron SD, Dales RE. The role of ipratropium bromide in the emergency management of acute asthma exacerbation: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Ann Emerg Med. 1999;34:8.
104. Lanes SF, Garrett JE, Wentworth CE III, Fitzgerald JM, Karpel JP. The effect of adding ipratropium bromide to salbutamol in the treatment of acute asthma: a pooled analysis of three trials. Chest. 1998;114:365.
105. Plotnick LHJ, Ducharme FM. Combined inhaled anticholinergics and beta2-agonists for initial treatment of acute asthma in children (Cochrane review). In: The Cochrane Library. Issue 2. Oxford: Update Software; 2003.
106. Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C. First-line therapy for adult patients with acute severe asthma receiving a multiple-dose protocol of ipratropium bromide plus albuterol in the emergency department. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;161:1862-1868.
107. O'Driscoll BR, Taylor RJ, Horsley MG, Chambers DK, Bernstein A. Nebulised salbutamol with and without ipratropium in acute airflow obstruction. Lancet. 1989;1:1418-1420.
108. Garrett JE, Town GI, Rodwell P, Kelly AM. Nebulized salbutamol with and without ipratropium bromide in the treatment of acute asthma. J Allerg Clin Immunol. 1997;100:165-170.
109. Lin RY, Pesola GR, Bakalchuk L, et al. Superiority of ipratropium bromide plus albuterol over albuterol alone in the emergency department management of adult asthma: a randomized clinical trial. Ann Emerg Med. 1998;31:208.
110. Karpel JP, Schacter EN, Fanta C, et al. A comparison of ipratropium and albuterol vs albuterol alone for treatment of acute asthma. Chest. 1996;110:611.
111. Weber EJ, Levitt A, Covington JK, Gambrioli E. Effect of continuously nebulized ipratropium bromide plus albuterol on emergency department length of stay and hospital admission rates in patients with acute bronchospasm. Chest. 1999;115:937.
112. Fitzgerald JM, Grunfeld A, Pare PD, et al, and the Canadian Combivent Study Group. The clinical efficacy of combination nebulized anticholinergic and adrenergic bronchodilators vs nebulized adrenergic bronchodilator alone in acute asthma. Chest. 1997;111:311-315.
113. McFadden ER, El Sanadi N, Strauss L, et al. The influence of parasympatholytics on the resolution of acute attacks of asthma. Am J Med. 1997;102:7-13.
114. Qureshi F, Pestian J, Davis P, Zaritsky A. Effect of nebulized ipratropium on hospitalization rates of children with asthma. New Engl J Med. 1998;339:1030.
115. Zorc JJ, Pusic MV, Ogborn CJ, Lebet R, Duggan AK. Ipratropium bromide added to asthma treatment in the pediatric emergency department. Pediatrics. 1999;103:748.
116. Schuh S, Johnson DW, Callahan S, et al. Efficacy of frequent nebulized ipratropium bromide added to frequent high-dose albuterol in severe childhood asthma. J Pediatr. 1995;126:639-645.
117. Ducharme FM, Davis GM. Randomized controlled trial of ipratropium bromide and frequent low doses of salbutamol in the management of mild and moderate acute pediatric asthma. J Pediatr. 1998;133:479.
118. McFadden ER Jr, Kiser R, deGroot WJ, Holmes B, Kiker R, Viser G. A controlled study of the effects of single doses of hydrocortisone on the resolution of acute attacks of asthma. Am J Med. 1976;60:52-59.
119. Rodrigo C, Rodrigo G. Early administration of hydrocortisone in the emergency room treatment of acute asthma: a controlled clinical trial. Respir Med. 1994;88:755.
120. Rodrigo G, Rodrigo C. Corticosteroids in the emergency department therapy of acute asthma: an evidence-based evaluation. Chest. 1999;116:285.
121. Littenberg B, Gluck EH. A controlled trial of methylprednisolone in the emergency treatment of acute asthma. NEJM. 1986;314:150-152.
122. Lin RY, Pesola GR, Bakalchuk L, et al. Rapid improvement of peak flow in asthmatic patients treated with parenteral methylprednisolone in the emergency department: a randomized controlled study. Ann Emerg Med. 1999;33:487.
123. Rowe BH, Spooner CH, Ducharme FM, et al. Early emergency department treatment of acute asthma with systemic corticosteroids (Cochrane review). In: The Cochrane Library. Issue 2. Oxford: Update Software; 2003.
124. Rowe BH, Keller JL, Oxman AD. Effectiveness of steroid therapy in acute exacerbations of asthma: a meta-analysis. Am J Emerg Med. 1992;10:301.
125. Chapman KR, Verbeek PR, White JG, et al. Effect of a short course of prednisone in the prevention of early relapse after the emergency room treatment of acute asthma. N Engl J Med. 1991;324:788-794.
126. Benatar SR. Fatal asthma. N Engl J Med. 1986;314:423.
127. Rowe BH, Spooner CH, Ducharme FM, et al. Corticosteroids for preventing relapse following acute exacerbations of asthma (Cochrane review). In: The Cochrane Library. Issue 2. Oxford: Update Software; 2003.
128. Connett GJ, Warde C, Wooler E, et al. Prednisolone and salbutamol in the hospital treatment of acute asthma. Arch Dis Child. 1994;70:170-173.
129. Fanta CH, Rossing TH, McFadden ER Jr. Glucocorticoids in acute asthma. A critical controlled trial. Am J Med. 1983;74:845-851.
130. Manser R, Reid D, Abramson M. Corticosteroids for acute severe asthma in hospitalised patients (Cochrane review). In: The Cochrane Library. Issue 2. Oxford: Update Software; 2004.
131. Emerman CL, Cydulka RK. A randomized comparison of 100-mg vs 500-mg dose of methylprednisolone in the treatment of acute asthma. Chest. 1995;107:1559-1563.
132. Haskell RJ, Wong BM, Hansen JE. A double-blind, randomized clinical trial of methylprednisolone in status asthmaticus. Arch Intern Med. 1983;143:1324-1327.
133. Bowler SD, Mitchell CA, Armstrong JG. Corticosteroids in acute severe asthma: effectiveness of low doses. Thorax. 1992;47:584.
134. Engel T, Dirksen A, Frolund L. Methylprednisolone pulse therapy in acute severe asthma. A randomized, double-blind study. Allergy. 1990;45:224.
135. Rodrigo G, Rodrigo C. Inhaled flunisolide for acute severe asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157:698.
136. McFadden ER Jr. Inhaled glucocorticoids in acute asthma: therapeutic breakthrough or nonspecific effect. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157:677.
137. Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C. Triple inhaled drug protocol for the treatment of acute severe asthma. Chest. 2003;123:1908-1915.
138. Guttman A, Afilalo M, Colacone A, Kreisman H, Dankoff J. The effects of combined intravenous and inhaled steroids (beclomethasone dipropionate) for the emergency treatment of acute asthma. The Asthma ED Study Group. Acad Emerg Med. 1997;4(2):100-106.
139. Afilalo M, Guttman A, Colacone A, et al. Efficacy of inhaled steroids (beclomethasone dipropionate) for treatment of mild to moderately severe asthma in the emergency department: a randomized clinical trial. Ann Emerg Med. 1999;33:304.
140. West JB. State of the art: ventilation-perfusion relationships. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1977;116:919.
141. Rodrigo C, Rodrigo G. Treatment of acute asthma: lack of therapeutic benefit and increase of the toxicity from aminophylline given in addition to high doses of salbutamol delivered by metered-dose inhaler with a spacer. Chest. 1994;106:1071.
142. Murphy DG, McDermott MF, Rydman RJ, et al. Aminophylline in the treatment of acute asthma when beta 2 adrenergics and steroids are provided. Arch Intern Med. 1993;153:1784-1788.
143. Siegel D, Sheppard D, Gelb A, et al. Aminophylline increases the toxicity but not the efficacy of an inhaled beta-adrenergic agonist in the treatment of acute exacerbations of asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1985;132:283-286.
144. Coleridge J, Cameron P, Epstein J, et al. Intravenous aminophyllne confers no benefit in acute asthma treated with intravenous steroids and inhaled bronchodilators. Aust N Z J Med. 1993;23:348-354.
145. Nuhoglu Y, Dai A, Barlan IB, Basaran MM. Efficacy of aminophylline in the treatment of acute asthma exacerbation in children. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1998;80:395.
146. Vieira SE, Lotufo JP, Ejzenberg B, Okay Y. Efficacy of IV aminophylline as a supplemental therapy in moderate broncho-obstructive crisis in infants and preschool children. Pulm Pharmacol Ther. 2000;13:189
147. Parameswaran K, Belda J, Rowe BH. Addition of intravenous aminophylline to beta2-agonists in adults with acute asthma (Cochrane review). In: The Cochrane Library. Issue 3. Oxford: Update Software; 2003.
148. Huang D, O'Brien RG, Harman E, et al. Does aminophylline benefit adults admitted to the hospital for an acute exacerbation of asthma? Ann Intern Med. 1993;119:1155-1160.
149. Pierson WE, Bierman CW, Stamm SJ, VanArsdel PP Jr. Double-blind trial of aminophylline in status asthmaticus. Pediatrics. 1971;48:642-646.
150. Yung M, South M. Randomised controlled trial of aminophylline for severe acute asthma. Arch Dis Child. 1998;79:405.
151. Wrenn K, Slovis CM, Murphy F, Greenberg RS. Aminophylline therapy for acute bronchospastic disease in the emergency room. Ann Intern Med. 1991;115:241-247.
152. Persson CGA. Xanthines as airway antiinflammatory drugs. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1988;81:615-617.
153. Pauwels RA. New aspects of the therapeutic potential of theophylline in asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999;83:548-553.
154. Mitra A, Bassler D, Ducharme FM. Intravenous aminophylline for acute severe asthma in children over 2 years using inhaled bronchodilators (Cochrane review). In: The Cochrane Library. Issue 3. Oxford: Update Software; 2003.
155. Green SM, Rothrock SG. Intravenous magnesium for acute asthma: failure to decrease emergency treatment duration or need for hospitalization. Ann Emerg Med. 1992;21:260.
156. Tiffany BR, Berk W, Todd IK, et al. Magnesium bolus or infusion fails to improve expiratory flow in acute asthma exacerbations. Chest. 1993;104:831.
157. Scarfone RJ, Loiselle JM, Joffe MD, et al. A randomized trial of magnesium in the emergency department treatment of children with asthma. Ann Emerg Med. 2000;36:572.
158. Boonyavorakul C, Thakkinstian A, Charoenpan P. Intravenous magnesium sulfate in acute severe asthma. Respirology. 2000;5:221.
159. Ciarallo L, Brousseau D, Reinert S. Higher-dose intravenous magnesium therapy for children with moderate to severe acute asthma. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2000;154:979.
160. Gurkan F, Haspolat K, Bosnak M, et al. Intravenous magnesium sulphate in the management of moderate to severe acute asthmatic children nonresponding to conventional therapy. Eur J Emerg Med. 1999;6:201.
161. Silverman RA, Osborn H, Runge J, et al. IV magnesium sulfate in the treatment of acute severe asthma: a multicenter randomized controlled trial. Chest. 2002;122:489.
162. Rodrigo G, Rodrigo C, Burschtin O. Efficacy of magnesium sulfate in acute adult asthma: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Am J Emerg Med. 2000;18:216-221.
163. Alters HJ, Koepsell TD, Hilty WM. Intravenous magnesium as an adjuvant in acute bronchospasm: a meta-analysis. Ann Emerg Med. 2000;36:191.
164. Rowe BH, Bretzlaff JA, Bourdon C, et al. Intravenous magnesium sulfate treatment for acute asthma in the emergency department: a systematic review of the literature. Ann Emerg Med. 2000;36:181.
165. Bloch H, Silverman R, Mancherje N, et al. Intravenous magnesium sulfate as an adjunct in the treatment of acute asthma. Chest. 1995;107:1576.
166. Nannini LJ, Pendino JC, Corna RA, et al. Magnesium sulfate as a vehicle for nebulized salbutamol in acute asthma. Am J Med. 2000;108:193-197.
167. Hughes R, Goldkorn A, Masoli M, Weatherall M, Burgess C, Beasley R. Use of isotonic nebulised magnesium sulphate as an adjunct to salbutamol in treatment of severe asthma in adults: randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2003;361:2114-2117.
168. Silverman R, Miller C, Chen Y, et al. Zafirlukast reduces relapses and treatment failures after an acute asthma episode. Chest. 1999:116:296S.
169. Ferreira MB, Santos AS, Pregal AL, et al. Leukotriene receptor antagonists (Montelukast) in the treatment of asthma crisis: preliminary results of a double-blind placebo controlled randomized study. Allerg Immunol (Paris). 2001;33:315.
170. Camargo CA Jr, Smithline HA, Malice MP, et al. A randomized controlled trial of intravenous montelukast in acute asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;167:528.
171. Madison JM, Irwin RS. Heliox for asthma: a trial balloon. Chest. 1995;107:597-598.
172. Manthous CA, Hall JB, Caputo ME, et al. The effect of heliox on pulsus paradoxus and peak flow in non-intubated patients with severe asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;151:310.
173. Kudukis TM, Manthous CA, Schmidt GA, et al. Inhaled helium-oxygen revisited: effect of inhaled helium-oxygen during the treatment of status asthmaticus in children. J Pediatr. February 1997;130(2):217-224.
174. 1 in acute asthma patients. J Emerg Med. 1998;16:545-548.
175. Dorfman TA, Shipley ER, Burton JH, et al. Inhaled heliox does not benefit ED patients with moderate to severe ashtma. Am J Emerg Med. 2000;18:495.
176. Carter ER, Webb CR, Moffitt DR. Evaluation of heliox in children hospitalized with acute severe asthma. A randomized crossover trial. Chest. 1996;109:1256-1261.
177. Rodrigo G, Rodrigo C, Pollack C, Rowe B. Helium-oxygen mixture for nonintubated acute asthma patients (Cochrane review). In: The Cochrane Library. Issue 3. Oxford: Update Software; 2003.
178. Kress JP, Noth I, Gehlbach BK, et al. The utility of albuterol nebulized with heliox during acute asthma exacerbation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;165:1317.
179. Henderson SO, Acharya P, Kilaghbian T, Perez J, Korn CS, Chan LS. Use of heliox-driven nebulizer therapy in the treatment of acute asthma. Ann Emerg Med. 1999;33:141.
180. Graham V, Lasserson TJ, Rowe BH. Antibiotics for acute asthma (Cochrane review). In: The Cochrane Library. Issue 3. Oxford: Update Software; 2003.
181. Shivaram U, Miro AM, Cash ME, et al. Cardiopulmonary responses to continuous positive airway pressure in acute asthma. J Crit Care. 1993;8:87.
182. Martin JG, Shore S, Engel LA. Effect of continuous positive airway pressure on respiratory mechanics and pattern of breathing in induced asthma. Am Rev RespirDis. 1982;126:812.
183. Meduri GU, Cook TR, Turner RE, et al. Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation in status asthmaticus. Chest. 1996;110:767.
184. Soroksky A, Stav D, Shpirer I. A pilot prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of bilevel positive pressure airway pressure in acute asthma attack. Chest. 2003;123:1018.
185. Meduri GU. Noninvasive positive ventilation in patients with asthma. In. Hall J, Corbridge T, Rodrigo C, Rodrigo G, eds. Acute Asthma: Assessment and Management. New York: McGraw Hill; 2000:191-207.
186. Tuxen D. Mechanical ventilation in asthma. In: Evans T, Hinds C, eds. Recent Advances in Critical Care. 4th ed. London: Churchill Livingstone; 1996:165.
187. Tuxen DV, Williams TJ, Scheinkestel CD, et al. Use of a measurement of pulmonary hyperinflation to control the level of mechanical ventilation in patients with acute severe asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992;146:1136.
188. Tuxen DV, Lane S. The effects of ventilatory pattern on hyperinflation, airway pressures, and circulation in mechanical ventilation of patients with severe air-flow obstruction. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1987;136:872.
189. Williams TJ, Tuxen DV, Scheinkestel CD, et al. Risk factors for morbidity in mechanically ventilated patients with acute severe asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992;146:607.
190. Come S, Gillespie D, Roberts D, Younes M. Effect of inspiratory flow rate on respiratory rate in intubated patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;156:304.
191. Marini JJ, Capps JS, Culver BH. The inspiratory work of breathing during assisted mechanical ventilation. Chest. 1985;87:612.
192. Tobin MJ. Advances in mechanical ventilation. NEJM. 2001;344:1986.
193. Tuxen DV. Detrimental effects of positive end-expiratory pressure during controlled mechanical ventilation of patients with severe airflow obstruction. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1989;140:5.
194. Kress JP, O'Connor MF, Schmidt GA. Clinical examination reliably detects intrinsic positive end-expiratory pressure in critically ill, mechanically ventilated patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159:290.
195. Leatherman JW, Ravenscraft SA. Low measured auto-positive end-expiratory pressure during mechanical ventilation of patients with severe asthma: hidden auto-positive end-expiratory pressure. Crit Care Med. 1996;24:541.
196. Feihl F, Perret C. State of the art: permissive hypercapnia: how permissive should we be? Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;150:1722.
197. Darioli R, Perret C. Mechanical controlled hypoventilation in status asthmaticus. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1984;129:385.
198. Tuxen DV. Permissive hypercapnic ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;150:870.
199. Cooper DJ, Calles JB, Scheinkestel CD, Tuxen DV. Does bicarbonate improve cardiac or respiratory function during respiratory acidosis and acute severe asthma - a prospective randomized study. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993;147:614A.
200. Kress JP, O'Connor MF, Pohlman AS, et al. Sedation of critically ill patients during mechanical ventilation: a comparison of propofol and midazolam. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996;153:1012.
201. Pohlman A, Simpson K, Hall J. Continuous intravenous infusions of lorazepam vs. midazolam for sedation during mechanical ventilatory support: a prospective, randomized study. Crit Care Med. 1994;22:1241.
202. Murray MJ, DeRuyter ML, Harrison BA. Opioids and benzodiazepines. Crit Care Clin. 1995;4:849.
203. Kress JP, Pohleman A, O'Connor MF, Hall JB. Daily interruption of sedative infusions in critically ill patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. NEJM. 2000;342:1471.
204. Caldwell JE, Lau M, Fisher DM. Atracurium versus vecuronium in asthmatic patients. A blinded, randomized comparison of adverse events. Anesthesiology. 1995;83:986.
205. Leatherman JW, Fluegel WL, David WS, et al. Muscle weakness in mechanically ventilated patients with severe asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996;153:1686.
206. Behbehani NA, Al-Mane F, D'yachkova Y, Pare P, FitzGerald JM. Myopathy following mechanical ventilation for acute severe asthma: the role of muscle relaxants and corticosteroids. Chest. 1999;115:1627.
207. Douglass JA, Tuxen D, Horne M, et al. Myopathy in severe asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992;146:517.
208. MacIntyre NR, Silver RM, Miller CW, et al. Aerosol delivery in intubated, mechanically ventilated patients. Crit Care Med. 1985;13:81.
209. Manthous CA, Hall JB, Schmidt GA, et al. Metered-dose inhaler versus nebulized albuterol in mechanically ventilated patients. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993;148:1567.
210. Manthous CA, Hall JB. Update on using therapeutic aerosols in mechanically ventilated patients. J Crit Illn. 1996;11:457.
211. Saulnier FF, Durocher AV, Deturck RA, et al. Respiratory and hemodynamic effects of halothane in status asthmaticus. Intensive Care Med. 1990;16:104.
212. Echeverria M, Gelb AW, Wexler HR, et al. Enflurane and halothane in status asthmaticus. Chest. 1986;89:153.
213. Gluck EH, Onorato DJ, Castriotta R. Helium-oxygen mixtures in intubated patients with status asthmaticus and respiratory acidosis. Chest. 1990;98:693.
214. Hanania NA, David-Wang A, Kesten S, et al. Factors associated with emergency department dependence of patients with asthma. Chest. 1997;111(2):290-295.
215. Radeos MS, Leak LV, Lugo BP, et al. Risk factors for lack of asthma self-management knowledge among ED patients not on inhaled steroids. Am J Emerg Med. 2001;19:253-259.
216. Cydulka RK, Emerman CL, Schreiber D, et al. Acute asthma among pregnant women presenting to the emergency department. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160:887-892.