The consequences of habitat fragmentation for plant-pollinator mutualisms

International Journal of Tropical Insect Science

Volumn 24, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 29-43

  Harris, L Fabienne ^a,b   Johnson, Steven D ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NATAL PIETERMARITZBURG   (South Africa)

^b NONE   (Kenya)

Author keywords

Allee effects breeding system extinction habitat fragmentation pollen flow pollen limitation pollination population size

Indexed keywords

INSECTA;

EID: 32244441919     PISSN: 17427584     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1079/IJT20049     Document Type: Review

References (156)

1. Ågren J. (1996) Population size, pollinator limitation, and seed set in the self-incompatible herb Lythrum salicaria. Ecology 77, 1779-1790.
2. Aizen M. A. and Feinsinger P. (1994a) Forest fragmentation, pollination, and plant reproduction in a Chaco dry forest, Argentina. Ecology 75, 330-351.
3. Aizen M. A. and Feinsinger P. (1994b) Habitat fragmentation, native insect pollinators, and feral honey bees in Argentine Chaco Serrano. Ecol. Appl. 4, 378-392.
4. Aizen M. A., Ashworth L. and Galetto L. (2002) Reproductive success in fragmented habitats: do compatibility systems and pollination specialization matter? J. Vegn. Sci. 13, 885-892.
5. Allen-Wardell G., Berhardt P., Bitner R., Burquez A., Buchman S., Cane J., Cox P. A., Dalton V., Feinsinger P., Ingram M., Inouye D., Jones C. E., Kennedy K., Kevan P., Koopowitz H., Medellin R., Medellin-Morales S. and Nabhan G. (1998) The potential consequences of pollinator declines on the conservation of biodiversity and stability of food crop yields. Conserv. Biol. 12, 8-17.
6. Anderson G. J., Bernardello G., Stuessy T.F. and Crawford D. J. (2001) Breeding system and pollination of selected plants endemic to Juan Fernández Islands. Am. J. Bot. 88, 220-233.
7. Arroyo M. T. K. (1976) Geitonogamy in animal pollinated tropical angiosperms: a stimulus for the evolution of self-incompatibility. Taxon 25, 543-548.
8. Barrett S. C. H. and Kohn J. R. (1991) Genetic and evolutionary consequences of small population size in plants: implications for conservation, pp. 1-30. In Genetics and Conservation of Rare Plants (Edited by D. A. Falk and K. E. Holsinger). Oxford University Press, New York, USA.
9. Bawa K. S. (1974) Breeding systems of tree species of a lowland tropical community. Evolution 28, 85-92.
10. Baz A. and Garcia-Boyero A. (1995) The effects of forest fragmentation on butterfly communities in central Spain. J. Biogeogr. 22, 129-140.
11. Becker P., Moure J. S. and Peralta F. J. A. (1991) More about Euglossine bees in Amazonian forest fragments. Biotropica 23, 586-591.
12. Berge G., Nordal I. and Hestmark G. (1998) The effect of breeding systems and pollination vectors on the genetic variation of small plant populations within an agricultural landscape. Oikos 81, 17-29.
13. Bigger D. S. (1999) Consequences of patch size and isolation for a rare plant: pollen limitation and seed predation. Nat. Areas J. 19, 239-244.
14. Bond W. J. (1994) Do mutualisms matter? Assessing the impact of pollinator and disperser disruption on plant extinction. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 344, 83-90.
15. Bond W. J. (1995) Assessing the risk of plant extinction due to pollinator and dispersal failure, pp. 131-146. In Extinction Rates (Edited by J. H. Lawton and R. M. May). Oxford University Press, London.
16. Bond W. J., Midgley J. and Vlok J. (1988) When is an island not an island? Insular effects and their causes in fynbos shrublands. Oecologia 77, 515-521.
17. Bosch M. and Waser N. M. (1999) Effects of local density on pollination and reproduction in Delphinium nuttallianum and Aconitum columbianum (Ranunculaceae). Am. J. Bot. 86, 871-879.
18. Bowers M. A. (1985) Bumble bee colonization, extinction, and reproduction in subalpine meadows in north-eastern Utah. Ecology 66, 914-927.
19. Bronstein J. L. (1995) The plant-pollinator landscape, Chapter 11. In Mosaic Landscapes and Ecological Processes (Edited by L. Hansson, L. Fahrig and G. Merriam). Chapman and Hall, London.
20. Brown K. S. and Hutchings R. W. (1997) Disturbance, fragmentation, and the dynamics of diversity in Amazonian forest butterflies, pp. 91-110. In Tropical Forest Remnants: Ecology, Management, and Conservation of Fragmented Communities (Edited by W. F. Laurance and R. O. Bierregaard Jr.). University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
21. Brown J. H. and Kodric-Brown A. (1997) Turnover rates in insular biogeography: effect of immigration rates on extinction. Ecology 58, 445-449.
22. Buchman S. L. and Nabhan G. P. (1996) The Forgotten Pollinators. Island Press, Washington D.C. 292 pp.
23. Burd M. (1994) Bateman's principle and plant reproduction: the role of pollen limitation in fruit and seed set. Bot. Rev. 60, 83-139.
24. Byers D. (1995) Pollen quantity and quality as explanations for low seed set in small populations exemplified by Eupatorium (Asteraceae). Am. J. Bot. 82, 1000-1006.
25. Cane J. H. (1991) Soils of ground-nesting bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea): texture, moisture, cell depth and climate. J. Kans. Entomol. Soc. 69, 238-247.
26. Cane J. H. (2001) Habitat fragmentation and native bees: a premature verdict? Conserv. Ecol. 5, 3 [online] URL: http://www.consecol.org/vol5/iss1/ art2.
27. Cane J. H. and Tepedino V. J. (2001) Causes and extent of declines among native North American invertebrate pollinators: detection, evidence, and consequences. Conserv. Ecol. 5, 1 [online] URL: http://www.consecol. org/vol5/iss1/art1.
28. Collinge S. K. (2000) Effects of grassland fragmentation on insect species loss, colonization, and movement patterns. Ecology 81, 2211-2226.
29. Conner J. K. and Neumeier R. (1995) Effects of black mustard population size on the taxonomic composition of pollinators. Oecologia 104, 218-224.
30. Corbet S. A. (2000) Conserving compartments in pollination webs. Conserv. Biol. 14, 1229-1231.
31. Costin B. A., Morgan J. W. and Young A. G. (2001) Reproductive success does not decline in fragmented populations of Leucochrysum albicans subsp. albicans var. tricolor (Asteraceae). Biol. Conserv. 98, 273-284.
32. Cunningham S. A. (2000a) Depressed pollination in habitat fragments causes low fruit set. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 267, 1149-1152.
33. Cunningham S. A. (2000b) Effects of habitat fragmentation on the reproductive ecology of four plant species in mallee woodland. Conserv. Biol. 14, 758-768.
34. Dafni A. (1992) Pollination Ecology: A Practical Approach. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. 250 pp.
35. Debinski D. M. and Holt R.D. (2000) A survey and overview of habitat fragmentation experiments. Conserv. Biol. 14, 342-355.
36. Demauro M. M. (1993) Relationship of breeding system to rarity in the Lakeside daisy (Hymenoxys acaulis var. glabra). Conserv. Biol. 7, 542-550.
37. Dick C. W. (2001) Genetic rescue of remnant tropical trees by an alien pollinator. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 268, 2391-2396.
38. Didham R. K., Ghazoul J., Stork N. E. and Davis A. J. (1996) Insects in fragmented forests: a functional approach. Trends Ecol. Evol. 11, 255-260.
39. Edwards M. (1996) Optimising habitats for bees in the United Kingdom: a review of recent conservation action, pp. 35-47. In The Conservation of Bees, (Edited by A. Matheson, S. L. Buchmann, C. O'Toole, P. Westrich and I. H. Williams). Linnean Society Symposium Series no. 18. Academic Press, London.
40. Ellstrand N. C. and Elam D. R. (1993) Population genetic consequences of small population size: Implications for plant conservation. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 24, 217-242.
41. Elmqvist T. (2000) Pollinator extinction in the Pacific Islands. Conserv. Biol. 14, 1237-1239.
42. Eriksson O. and Ehrlén J. (1992) Seed and microsite limitation of recruitment in plant populations. Oecologia 91, 360-364.
43. Feinsinger P., Linhart Y. B., Busby W. H. and Murray K. G. (1987) Disturbance, pollinator predictability, and pollination success among Costa Rican cloud forest plants. Ecology 68, 1294-1305.
44. Field L. F. (2001) Consequences of habitat fragmentation for the pollination of grassland wildflowers in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Unpublished MSc thesis (University of Natal).
45. Fischer B. L. (1998) Insect behaviour and ecology in conservation: preserving functional species interactions. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 91, 155-158.
46. Fischer M. and Matthies D. (1997) Mating structure and inbreeding and outbreeding depression in the rare plant Gentianella germanica (Gentianaceae). Am. J. Bot. 84, 1685-1692.
47. Fritz A. and Nilsson L. A. (1994) How pollinator-mediated mating varies with population size in plants. Oecologia 100, 451-462.
48. Ghazoul J. and McLeish M. (2001) Reproductive ecology of tropical forest trees in logged and fragmented habitats in Thailand and Costa Rica. Plant. Ecol. 153, 335-345.
49. Gigord L., Picot F. and Shykoff J. A. (1999) Effects of habitat fragmentation on Dombeya acutangula (Sterculiaceae), a native tree on La Réunion (Indian Ocean). Biol. Conserv. 88, 43-51.
50. Givnish T. J. (2001) The rise and fall of plant species: a population biologist's perspective. Am. J. Bot. 88, 1928-1934.
51. Golden D. M. and Crist T. O. (1999) Experimental effects of habitat fragmentation on old-field canopy insects: community, guild and species responses. Oecologia 118, 371-380.
52. Goldingay R. L. and Whelan R. J. (1990) Breeding system and tests for pollen-limitation in two species of Banksia. Aust. J. Bot. 38, 63-71.
53. Groom M. J. (1998) Allee effects limit population viability of an annual plant. Am. Nat. 151, 487-496.
54. Hackney E. E. and McGraw J. (2001) Experimental demonstration of an allee effect in American ginseng. Conserv. Biol. 15, 129-136.
55. Hall P., Walker S. and Bawa K. (1996) Effect of forest fragmentation on genetic diversity and mating system in a tropical tree, Pithecellobium elegans. Conserv. Biol. 10, 757-768.
56. Hansson L. and Angelstam P. (1991) Landscape ecology as a theoretical basis for nature conservation. Landsc. Ecol. 5, 191-201.
57. Herrera C. M. (2000) Flower-to-seedling consequences of different pollination regimes in an insect-pollinated shrub. Ecology 81, 15-29.
58. Heschel M. S. and Paige K. N. (1995) Inbreeding depression, environmental stress, and population size variation in scarlet gilia (Ipomopsis aggregata). Conserv. Biol. 9, 126-133.
59. Husband B. C. and Schemske D. W. (1996) Evolution of the magnitude and timing of inbreeding depression in plants. Evolution 50, 54-70.
60. Ingvarsson P. K. and Lundberg S. (1995) Pollinator functional response and plant population dynamics: pollinators as a limiting resource. Evol. Ecol. 9, 421-428.
61. Janzen D. H. (1974) The deflowering of Central America. Nat. Hist. 84, 48-53.
62. Jennersten O. (1988) Pollination in Dianthus deltoides (Caryophyllaceae): effects of habitat fragmentation on visitation and seed set. Conserv. Biol. 2, 359-366.
63. Johnson S. D. and Steiner K. E. (2000) Generalization versus specialization in plant pollination systems. Trends Ecol. Evol. 15, 140-143.
64. Johnson S. D. and Steiner K. E. (2003) Specialized pollination systems in southern Africa. S. Afr. J. Sci. (in press).
65. Karoly K. (1992) Pollinator limitation in the facultatively autogamous annual, Lupinus nanus (Leguminosae). Am. J. Bot. 79, 49-56.
66. Kearns C. A. and Inouye D. W. (1997) Pollinators, flowering plants, and conservation biology. Bioscience 47, 297-307.
67. Kearns C. A., Inouye D. W. and Waser N. M. (1998) Endangered mutualisms: the conservation of plant-pollinator interactions. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Sysf. 29, 83-112.
68. Kemper J., Cowling R. M. and Richardson D. M. (1999) Fragmentation of South African Renosterveld shrublands: effects on plant community structure and conservation implications. Biol. Conserv. 90, 103-111.
69. Kéry M., Matthies D. and Spillman H. (2000) Reduced fecundity and offspring performance in small populations of the declining grassland plants Primula veris and Gentiana lutea. J. Ecol. 88, 17-30.
70. Kevan P. G. (1999) Pollinators as bioindicators of the state of the environment: species, activity and diversity. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 74, 373-393.
71. Klemm M. (1996) Man-made bee habitats in the anthropogenous landscape of central Europe: substitutes for threatened or destroyed riverine habitats?, pp. 17-31. In The Conservation of Bees (Edited by A. Matheson, S.L. Buchmann, C. O'Toole, P. Westrich and I. H. Williams). Linnean Society Symposium Series no 18, Academic Press, London.
72. Kremen C. and Ricketts T. (2000) Global perspectives on pollination disruptions. Conserv. Biol. 14, 1226-1228.
73. Kunin W. E. (1993) Sex and the single mustard: population density and pollinator behaviour effects on seed set. Ecology 74, 2145-2160.
74. Kunin W. E. (1997) Population biology and rarity: on the complexity of density dependence in insect-plant interactions, pp. 150-173. In The Biology of Rarity: Causes and Consequences of Rare-Common Differences (Edited by W. E. Kunin and K. J. Gaston). Chapman and Hall, London.
75. Kwak M. M. (1987) Pollination and pollen flow disturbed by honey bees in bumblebee-pollinated Rhinanthus populations? pp. 273-284. In Disturbance in Grasslands: Causes, Effects and Processes (Edited by J. Van Andel, J. P. Bakker and R. W. Snaydon). Dr W. Junk Publishers, Dordrecht.
76. Ladley J. L. and Kelly D. (1995) Explosive New Zealand mistletoe. Nature 378, 766.
77. Lamont B. B., Klinkhamer P. G. L. and Witkowski E. T .R (1993) Population fragmentation may reduce fertility to zero in Banksia goodii - a demonstration of the Allee effect. Oecologia 94, 446-450.
78. Larson B. M. H. and Barret S. C. H. (1998) Reproductive biology of island and mainland populations of Primula mistassinica (Primulaceae) on Lake Huron shorelines. Can. J. Bot. 76, 1819-1827.
79. Larson B. M. H. and Barrett S. C. H. (2000) A comparative analysis of pollen limitation in flowering plants. Biol. J. Linnean Soc. Lond. 69, 503-520.
80. Leach M. K. and Givnish T. J. (1996) Ecological determinants of species loss in remnant prairies. Science 273, 555-1558.
81. Lee T. D. (1988) Patterns of fruit and seed production, pp. 179-263. In Reproductive Ecology of Plants (Edited by J. Lovest-Doust and L. Lovest-Doust). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
82. Lennartsson T. (2002) Extinction thresholds and disrupted plant-pollinator interactions in fragmented plant populations. Ecology 83, 3060-3072.
83. Les D. H., Reinartz J. A. and Esselman E. J. (1991) Genetic consequences of rarity in Aster furatus (Asteraceae), a threatened, self-incompatible plant. Evolution 45, 1641-1650.
84. Lindberg A. B. and Olesen J. M. (2001) The fragility of extreme specialization: Passiflora mixta and its pollinating hummingbird Ensifera ensifera. J. Trop. Ecol. 17, 323-329.
85. Lindsey A. H. (1984) Reproductive biology of Apiaceae. I. Floral visitors to Thaspium and Zizia and their importance in pollination. Am. J. Bot. 71, 375-387.
86. Linhart Y. B. and Feinsinger P. (1980) Plant-hummingbird interactions: effects of island size and degree of specialization on pollination. J. Ecol. 68, 745-760.
87. MacArthur R. H. and Wilson E. O. (1963) An equilibrium theory of insular biogeography. Evolution 17, 373-387.
88. MacArthur R. H. and Wilson E. O. (1967) The Theory of Island Biogeography. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. 203 pp.
89. Mahy G., De Sloover J. and Jacquemart A. (1998) The generalist pollination system and reproductive success of Calluna vulgaris in the Upper Ardene. Can. J. Bot. 76, 1843-1851.
90. Marlin J. C. and Laberge W. E. (2001) The native bee fauna of Carlinville, Illinois, revisited after 75 years: a case for persistence. Conserv. Ecol. 5, 9 [online] URL://www.consecol.org/vol5/iss1/art2.
91. Mawdsley N. A., Compton S. G. and Whittaker R. J. (1998) Population persistence, pollination mechanisms, and figs in fragmented tropical landscapes. Conserv. Biol. 12, 1416-1420.
92. Memmott J. (1999) The structure of a plant-pollinator food web. Ecol. Lett. 2, 276-280.
93. Menges E. S. (1991) Seed germination percentage increases with population size in a fragmented prairie species. Conserv. Biol. 5, 158-164.
94. Molano-Flores B., Hendrix S. D. and Heard S. B. (1999) The effect of population size on stigma pollen load, fruit set, and seed set in Allium stellatum Ker. (Liliaceae). Int. J. Plant Sci. 160, 753-757.
95. Morgan J. W. (1999a) Effects of population size on seed production and germinability in an endangered, fragmented grassland plant. Conserv. Biol. 13, 266-273.
96. Morgan J. W. (1999b) Defining grassland fire events and the response of perennial plants to annual fire in temperate grasslands of south-eastern Australia. Plant Ecol. 144, 127-144.
97. Motten A. F. (1986) Pollination ecology of the spring wildflower community of a temperate deciduous forest. Ecol. Monogr. 56, 21-42.
98. Murcia C. (1996) Forest fragmentation and the pollination of neotropical plants, pp. 19-36. In Forest Patches in Tropical Landscapes (Edited by J. Schelhas and R. Greenberg). Island Press, Washington D.C., USA.
99. Murren C. J. (2002) Effects of habitat fragmentation on pollination: pollinators, pollinia viability and reproductive success. J. Ecol. 90, 100-107.
100. Nabhan G. P. (1996) Global list of threatened vertebrate wildlife species serving as pollinators for crops and wild plants. Forgotten Pollinators Campaign, Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, Tucson. 16 pp.
101. Nason J. D. and Hamrick J. L. (1997) Reproductive and genetic consequences of forest fragmentation: two case studies of neotropical canopy trees. J. Hered. 88, 264-276.
102. Neal P. R. (1998) Pollinator restoration. Trends Ecol. Evol. 13, 132-133.
103. Nilsson L. A., Rabakonandrianina E., Razananaivo R. and Randriamanindry J.-J. (1992) Long pollinia on eyes: hawk-moth pollination of Cynorkis uniflora Lindley (Orchidaceae) in Madagascar. Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 109, 145-160.
104. Nishihiro J. and Washitani I. (1998) Effect of population spatial structure on pollination and seed set of a clonal distylous plant, Persicaria japonica (Polygonaceae). J. Plant Res. 111, 547-555.
105. Noss R. F. and Csuti B. (1997) Habitat fragmentation, pp. 269-304. In Principles of Conservation Biology, 2nd Edn. (Edited by G. K. Meffe and C. R. Carroll), Sinauer Associates, Inc. Publishers, Sunderland.
106. Novacek M. J. and Cleland E. E. (2001) The current biodiversity extinction event: scenarios for mitigation and recovery. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 98, 5466-5470.
107. Olesen J. M. and Jain S. K. (1994) Fragmented plant populations and their lost interactions, pp. 417-426. In Conservation Genetics (Edited by V. Loeschcke, J. Tomiuk and S. K. Jain). Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel/Switzerland.
108. Ollerton J. (1996) Reconciling ecological processes with phylogenetic patterns: the apparent paradox of plant-pollinator systems. J. Ecol. 84, 767-769.
109. Oostermeijer J. G. B., van Eijck M. W. and den Nijs H. C. M. (1994) Offspring fitness in relation to population size and genetic variation in the rare perennial plant Gentiana pneumonanthe (Gentianaceae). Oecologia 97, 289-296.
110. Oostermeijer J. G., Luijten S. H., KÍenová Z. V. and Den Nijs H. C. M. (1998) Relationships between population and habitat characteristics and reproduction of the rare Gentiana pneumonanthe L. Conserv. Biol. 12, 1042-1053.
111. O'Toole C. and Raw A. (1991) Bees of the World. Blandford, London, 192 pp.
112. Powell A. H. and Powell G. V. N. (1987) Population dynamics of male euglossine bees in Amazonian forest fragments. Biotropica 19, 176-179.
113. Pyke G. H., Pulliam H. R. and Charnov E. L. (1977) Optimal foraging: a selective review of theory and test. Q. Rev. Biol. 52, 137-154.
114. Rasmussen I. R. and Brødsgaard B. (1992) Gene flow inferred from seed dispersal and pollinator behaviour compared to DNA analysis of restriction site variation in a patchy population of Lotus corniculatus L. Oecologia 89, 277-283.
115. Rathcke B. J. and Jules E. S. (1993) Habitat fragmentation and plant-pollinator interactions. Curr. Sci. 65, 273-277.
116. Renner S. S. (1999) Effects of habitat fragmentation on plant pollinator interactions in the tropics, pp. 339-360. In Dynamics of Tropical Communities (Edited by H. H. Prins and N. D. Brown). Blackwell Scientific, London.
117. Richards A. J. (1986) Plant Breeding Systems. Unwin Hyman, London. 523 pp.
118. Ricketts T.H. (2001) The matrix matters: effective isolation in fragmented landscapes. Am. Nat. 158, 87-89.
119. Robertson A. W., Kelly D., Ladley J. J. and Sparrow A. D. (1999) Effects of pollinator loss on endemic New Zealand mistletoes (Loranthaceae). Conserv. Biol. 13, 499-508.
120. Robinson G. R. and Quinn J. F. (1988) Extinction, turnover and species diversity in an experimentally fragmented California annual grassland community. Oecologia 76, 71-82.
121. Rocha O. J. and Aguilar G. (2001) Reproductive biology of the dry forest tree Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Guanacaste) in Costa Rica: a comparison between trees left in pasture and trees in continuous forest. Am. J. Bot. 88, 1607-1614.
122. Roll J., Mitchell R.J., Cabin R. J. and Marshall D. L. (1997) Reproductive success increases with local density of conspecifics in a desert mustard (Lesquerella fendleri). Conserv. Biol. 11, 738-746.
123. Rolstad J. (1991) Consequences of forest fragmentation for the dynamics of bird populations: conceptual issues and the evidence. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 42, 149-163.
124. Roubik D. W. (2001) Ups and downs in pollinator populations: when is there a decline? Conserv. Ecol. 5, 2 [online] URL://www.consecol.org/vol5/iss1/ art2.
125. Sala O. E., Chapin F. S. III, Armesto J. J., Berlow E., Bloomfield J., Dirzo R., Huber-Sanwald E., Huenneke L. F., Jackson R. B., Kinzig A., Leemans R., Lodge D. M., Mooney H. A., Oesterheld M., Poff N. L., Sykes M. T., Walker B.H., Walker M. and Wall D.H. (2000) Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science 287, 1770-1774.
126. Samways M. J. (1993) A spatial and process sub-regional framework for insect and biodiversity conservation research and management, pp. 1-28. In Perspectives on Insect Conservation (Edited by K. J. Gaston, T. R. New and M. J. Samways). Intercept Ltd, Hampshire, UK.
127. Saunders D. A., Hobbs R. J. and Margules C. R. (1991) Biological consequences of habitat fragmentation: a review. Conserv. Biol. 5, 18-32.
128. Schoen D. J. and Lloyd D. G. (1992) Self- and cross-fertilization in plants. III Methods for studying modes and functional aspects of self-fertilization. Int. J. Plant Sci. 153, 381-393.
129. Schulke B. and Waser N. M. (2001) Long-distance pollinator flights and pollen dispersal between populations of Delphinium nuttallianum. Oecologia 127, 237-245.
130. Schultz C. B. and Crone E. E. (2001) Edge-mediated dispersal behaviour in a prairie butterfly. Ecology 82, 1879-1892.
131. Sih A. and Baltus M. (1987) Patch size, pollinator behaviour, and pollinator limitation in catnip. Ecology 68, 1679-1690.
132. Spears E. E. (1987) Island and mainland pollination ecology of Centrosema virginianum and Opuntia stricta. J. Ecol. 75, 351-362.
133. Steffan-Dewenter I. and Tscharntke T. (1999) Effects of habitat isolation on pollinator communities and seed set. Oecologia 121, 432-440.
134. Steiner K. E. (1993) Has Ixianthes (Scrophulariaceae) lost its special bee? Plant Syst. Evol. 185, 7-16.
135. Steiner K. E. and Whitehead V. B. (1996) The consequences of specialization for pollination in a rare South African shrub, Ixianthes retzioides (Scrophulariaceae). Plant Syst. Evol. 201, 131-138.
136. Summerville K. S. and Crist T. O. (2001) Effects of experimental habitat fragmentation on patch use by butterflies and skippers (Lepidoptera). Ecology 82, 1360-1370.
137. Thomas J. A. (1996) The case for a science-based strategy for conserving threatened butterfly populations in the UK and north Europe, pp. 1-6. In Species Survival in Fragmented Landscapes (Edited by J. Settele, C. R. Margules, P. Poschlod and K. Henle). Kluwer Academic, Amsterdam.
138. Thomson J. D. (2001) Using pollination deficits to infer pollinator declines: can theory guide us? Conserv. Ecol. 5, 6 [online] URL: http://www.consecol.org/vol5/iss1/art6.
139. Turnbull L. A., Crawley M. J. and Rees M. (2000) Are plants seed-limited? A review of seed sowing experiments. Oikos 88, 225-238.
140. Turner I. M. (1996) Species loss in fragments of tropical rain forest: a review of the evidence. J. Appl. Ecol. 33, 200-209.
141. Van Treuren R., Bijlsma R., Ouborg N. J. and Kwak M. M. (1994) Relationships between plant density, outcrossing rates and seed set in natural and experimental populations of Scabiosa columbaria. J. Evol. Biol. 7, 287-302.
142. Vandermeer J., Hoffman B., Krantz-Ryan S. L., Wijayratne U., Buff J. and Franciscus V. (2001) Effect of habitat fragmentation on gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar L.) dispersal: the quality of the matrix. Am. Midl. Nat. 145, 188-193.
143. Waddington K. (1983) Foraging behaviour of pollinators, pp. 222-229. In Pollination Biology (Edited by L. Real). Academic Press, Orlando.
144. Waser N. M. (1978) Interspecific pollen transfer and competition between co-occurring plant species. Oecologia 36, 223-236.
145. Waser N. M. and Price M. V. (1991) Outcrossing distance effects in Delphinium nelsonii: pollen loads, pollen tubes, and seed set. Ecology 72, 171-179.
146. Waser N. M., Chittka L., Price M. V., Williams N. M. and Ollerton J. (1996) Generalization in pollination systems, and why it matters. Ecology 77, 1043-1060.
147. Washitani I. (1996) Predicted genetic consequences of strong fertility selection due to pollinator loss in an isolated population of Primula sieboldii. Conserv. Biol. 10, 59-64.
148. Weller S. C. (1994) The relationship of rarity to plant reproductive biology, pp. 92-117, In Restoration of Endangered Species (Edited by M. L. Bowles and C. J. Whelan). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
149. Westerbergh A. and Saura A. (1994) Gene flow and pollinator behaviour in Silene dioica populations. Oikos 71, 215-224.
150. Westrich P. (1996) Habitat requirements of central European bees and the problems of partial habitats, pp. 1-16, In The Conservation of Bees (Edited by A. Matheson, S. L. Buchmann, C. O'Toole, P. Westrich and I. H. Williams). Linnean Society Symposium Series no. 18, Academic Press, London.
151. White G. M., Boshier D. H. and Powell W. (2002) Increased pollen flow counteracts fragmentation in a tropical dry forest: an example from Swietenia humilis Zuccarini. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 99, 2038-2042.
152. Williams N., Minckley R. and Silviera F. (2001) Variation in native bee faunas and its implications for detecting community changes. Conserv. Ecol. 5, 7 [online] URL: //www.consecol.org/vol5/iss1/art2.
153. Wolf A. T. and Harrison S. P. (2001) Effects of habitat size and patch isolation on reproductive success of the serpentine morning glory. Conserv. Biol. 15,111-121.
154. Young A. and Merriam H. G. (1994) Effects of forest fragmentation on the spatial genetic structure of Acer saccharum Marsh, (sugar maple) populations. Heredity 72, 201-208.
155. Young A., Boyle T. and Brown T. (1996) The population genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation for plants. Trends Ecol. Evol. 11, 413-418.
156. Zink R. A. and Wheelwright N. T. (1997) Facultative self-pollination in island irises. Am. Midl. Nat. 137, 72-78.