The international politics of secularism: U.S. foreign policy and the Islamic Republic of Iran

Alternatives

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 115-138

  Hurd, Elizabeth Shakman ^a  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 3142746833     PISSN: 03043754     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030437540402900201     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. The epigraph to this article is from Robert J. Allison, The Crescent Obscured: The United States and the Muslim World, 1776-1815 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000, 2d ed.), p. xiii.
2. Mark Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War? Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), p. 31. See also Juergensmeyer, Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
3. Mark Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War? Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), p. 31. See also Juergensmeyer, Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
4. Juergensmeyer, note 1, New Cold War? p. 197.
5. Iranian intellectuals have criticized laicism for its association with Enlightenment presumptions such as "the stripping of nature's divine essence, the advocacy of science and secular knowledge, and the priviledging [sic] of mind and body over soul": Mehrzad Boroujerdi, "Iranian Islam and the Faustian Bargain of Western Modernity, "Journal of Peace Research 34, no. 1 (1997): 2.
6. For a recent example, see Bernard Lewis, What Went Wrong? Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).
7. On secular nationalism as a "universal political grammar of public life," see Mark Juergensmeyer, "The New Religious State," Comparative Politics 27, no. 4 (1995): 380-381.
8. Ibid., p. 381.
9. Eugenio Trias, "Thinking Religion: the Symbol and the Sacred," in Jacques Derrida and Gianni Vattimo, eds., Religion (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1998), p. 96.
10. José Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), p. 227.
11. Suzanne Maloney, "Identity and Change in Iran's Foreign Policy," in Shibley Telhami and Michael Barnett, eds. Identity and Foreign Policy in the Middle East (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2002), p. 93.
12. William E. Connolly, Political Theory and Modernity (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993), p. 190. The dynamics of identity/difference have been explored by Immanuel Levinas and Mikhail Bakhtin. For an application of Levinas to international relations, see David Campbell's National Deconstruction: Violence, Identity, and Justice in Bosnia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998), esp. pp. 171-181. On Bakhtin, see Campbell, "Political Prosaics, Transversal Politics, and the Anarchical World," in Michael J. Shapiro and Hayward R. Alker, eds., Challenging Boundaries: Global Flows, Territorial Identities (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), pp. 20-24.
13. William E. Connolly, Political Theory and Modernity (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993), p. 190. The dynamics of identity/difference have been explored by Immanuel Levinas and Mikhail Bakhtin. For an application of Levinas to international relations, see David Campbell's National Deconstruction: Violence, Identity, and Justice in Bosnia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998), esp. pp. 171-181. On Bakhtin, see Campbell, "Political Prosaics, Transversal Politics, and the Anarchical World," in Michael J. Shapiro and Hayward R. Alker, eds., Challenging Boundaries: Global Flows, Territorial Identities (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), pp. 20-24.
14. William E. Connolly, Political Theory and Modernity (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993), p. 190. The dynamics of identity/difference have been explored by Immanuel Levinas and Mikhail Bakhtin. For an application of Levinas to international relations, see David Campbell's National Deconstruction: Violence, Identity, and Justice in Bosnia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998), esp. pp. 171-181. On Bakhtin, see Campbell, "Political Prosaics, Transversal Politics, and the Anarchical World," in Michael J. Shapiro and Hayward R. Alker, eds., Challenging Boundaries: Global Flows, Territorial Identities (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), pp. 20-24.
15. Theologian and social theorist John Milbank makes a related argument, though Milbank believes that secularism is constituted through its opposition to orthodox Christianity, rather than religion in its entirety. "Secular discourse does not just 'borrow' inherently inappropriate modes of expression from religion as the only discourse to hand (this is Hans Blumenberg's interpretation) but is actually constituted in its secularity by 'heresy' in relation to orthodox Christianity, or else a rejection of Christianity that is more 'neo-pagan' than simply anti-religious": John Milbank, Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990, 1993).
16. This argument follows Levinas's "ethics as first philosophy," in which "being is a radically interdependent condition, a condition made possible only because of my responsibility to the Other": Campbell, note 10, National Deconstruction, p. 173. See also David Campbell, "The Derrito-rialization of Responsibility: Levinas, Derrida, and Ethics after the End of Philosophy," Alternatives 19, no. 4 (1994): 455-484; Adriaan T. Peperzak, Simon Critchley, and Robert Benasconi, eds., Emmanuel Levinas: Basic Philosophical Writings (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996); Emmanuel Levinas, Otherwise than Being or Beyond Essence, trans. Alphonso Lingis (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1981); and Emmanuel Levinas, Totality and Infinity, trans. Alphonso Lingis (Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1969).
17. This argument follows Levinas's "ethics as first philosophy," in which "being is a radically interdependent condition, a condition made possible only because of my responsibility to the Other": Campbell, note 10, National Deconstruction, p. 173. See also David Campbell, "The Derrito-rialization of Responsibility: Levinas, Derrida, and Ethics after the End of Philosophy," Alternatives 19, no. 4 (1994): 455-484; Adriaan T. Peperzak, Simon Critchley, and Robert Benasconi, eds., Emmanuel Levinas: Basic Philosophical Writings (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996); Emmanuel Levinas, Otherwise than Being or Beyond Essence, trans. Alphonso Lingis (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1981); and Emmanuel Levinas, Totality and Infinity, trans. Alphonso Lingis (Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1969).
18. This argument follows Levinas's "ethics as first philosophy," in which "being is a radically interdependent condition, a condition made possible only because of my responsibility to the Other": Campbell, note 10, National Deconstruction, p. 173. See also David Campbell, "The Derrito-rialization of Responsibility: Levinas, Derrida, and Ethics after the End of Philosophy," Alternatives 19, no. 4 (1994): 455-484; Adriaan T. Peperzak, Simon Critchley, and Robert Benasconi, eds., Emmanuel Levinas: Basic Philosophical Writings (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996); Emmanuel Levinas, Otherwise than Being or Beyond Essence, trans. Alphonso Lingis (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1981); and Emmanuel Levinas, Totality and Infinity, trans. Alphonso Lingis (Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1969).
19. This argument follows Levinas's "ethics as first philosophy," in which "being is a radically interdependent condition, a condition made possible only because of my responsibility to the Other": Campbell, note 10, National Deconstruction, p. 173. See also David Campbell, "The Derrito-rialization of Responsibility: Levinas, Derrida, and Ethics after the End of Philosophy," Alternatives 19, no. 4 (1994): 455-484; Adriaan T. Peperzak, Simon Critchley, and Robert Benasconi, eds., Emmanuel Levinas: Basic Philosophical Writings (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996); Emmanuel Levinas, Otherwise than Being or Beyond Essence, trans. Alphonso Lingis (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1981); and Emmanuel Levinas, Totality and Infinity, trans. Alphonso Lingis (Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1969).
20. This argument follows Levinas's "ethics as first philosophy," in which "being is a radically interdependent condition, a condition made possible only because of my responsibility to the Other": Campbell, note 10, National Deconstruction, p. 173. See also David Campbell, "The Derrito-rialization of Responsibility: Levinas, Derrida, and Ethics after the End of Philosophy," Alternatives 19, no. 4 (1994): 455-484; Adriaan T. Peperzak, Simon Critchley, and Robert Benasconi, eds., Emmanuel Levinas: Basic Philosophical Writings (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996); Emmanuel Levinas, Otherwise than Being or Beyond Essence, trans. Alphonso Lingis (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1981); and Emmanuel Levinas, Totality and Infinity, trans. Alphonso Lingis (Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1969).
21. Connolly, note 10, pp. 190-191.
22. I am grateful to Charles Taylor for the concept of a purificatory imaginary. Taylor cites Robespierre's drive violently to purify the French republic after the revolution as an example of this tendency to seek purification and virtue in an allegedly secular context. For Taylor's most recent commentary on secularism, see his Modern Social Imaginaries (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2004), 185-194.
23. On the role of foreign policy in serving these objectives, see David Campbell, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992).
24. In Violence and the Sacred, René Girard describes how primal religions use violence against scapegoats to found, preserve, and unify their cultures. He argues that in modern times we must resist treating religion as our scapegoat by approaching it "as an isolated, wholly fictitious phenomenon cherished only by a few backward people": Girard, Violence and the Sacred (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979), p. 317. On the relationship between violence, religion, and collective identity, see also Regina Schwartz, The Curse of Cain: The Violent Legacy of Monotheism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), and Sudhir Kakar, The Colors of Violence: Cultural Identities, Religion, and Conflict (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). Kakar argues that "the self-assertion of the 'We are,' with its potential for confrontation with the 'We are' of other groups, is inherently a carrier of aggression, together with the consequent fears of persecution, and is thus always attended by a sense of risk and potential for violence": ibid., p. 189.
25. In Violence and the Sacred, René Girard describes how primal religions use violence against scapegoats to found, preserve, and unify their cultures. He argues that in modern times we must resist treating religion as our scapegoat by approaching it "as an isolated, wholly fictitious phenomenon cherished only by a few backward people": Girard, Violence and the Sacred (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979), p. 317. On the relationship between violence, religion, and collective identity, see also Regina Schwartz, The Curse of Cain: The Violent Legacy of Monotheism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), and Sudhir Kakar, The Colors of Violence: Cultural Identities, Religion, and Conflict (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). Kakar argues that "the self-assertion of the 'We are,' with its potential for confrontation with the 'We are' of other groups, is inherently a carrier of aggression, together with the consequent fears of persecution, and is thus always attended by a sense of risk and potential for violence": ibid., p. 189.
26. In Violence and the Sacred, René Girard describes how primal religions use violence against scapegoats to found, preserve, and unify their cultures. He argues that in modern times we must resist treating religion as our scapegoat by approaching it "as an isolated, wholly fictitious phenomenon cherished only by a few backward people": Girard, Violence and the Sacred (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979), p. 317. On the relationship between violence, religion, and collective identity, see also Regina Schwartz, The Curse of Cain: The Violent Legacy of Monotheism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), and Sudhir Kakar, The Colors of Violence: Cultural Identities, Religion, and Conflict (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). Kakar argues that "the self-assertion of the 'We are,' with its potential for confrontation with the 'We are' of other groups, is inherently a carrier of aggression, together with the consequent fears of persecution, and is thus always attended by a sense of risk and potential for violence": ibid., p. 189.
27. In Violence and the Sacred, René Girard describes how primal religions use violence against scapegoats to found, preserve, and unify their cultures. He argues that in modern times we must resist treating religion as our scapegoat by approaching it "as an isolated, wholly fictitious phenomenon cherished only by a few backward people": Girard, Violence and the Sacred (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979), p. 317. On the relationship between violence, religion, and collective identity, see also Regina Schwartz, The Curse of Cain: The Violent Legacy of Monotheism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), and Sudhir Kakar, The Colors of Violence: Cultural Identities, Religion, and Conflict (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). Kakar argues that "the self-assertion of the 'We are,' with its potential for confrontation with the 'We are' of other groups, is inherently a carrier of aggression, together with the consequent fears of persecution, and is thus always attended by a sense of risk and potential for violence": ibid., p. 189.
28. In Violence and the Sacred, René Girard describes how primal religions use violence against scapegoats to found, preserve, and unify their cultures. He argues that in modern times we must resist treating religion as our scapegoat by approaching it "as an isolated, wholly fictitious phenomenon cherished only by a few backward people": Girard, Violence and the Sacred (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979), p. 317. On the relationship between violence, religion, and collective identity, see also Regina Schwartz, The Curse of Cain: The Violent Legacy of Monotheism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), and Sudhir Kakar, The Colors of Violence: Cultural Identities, Religion, and Conflict (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). Kakar argues that "the self-assertion of the 'We are,' with its potential for confrontation with the 'We are' of other groups, is inherently a carrier of aggression, together with the consequent fears of persecution, and is thus always attended by a sense of risk and potential for violence": ibid., p. 189.
29. See John L. Esposito, The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? 3d ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999). An example is the arrest and imprisonment in 2000 of Saad Eddin Ibrahim, a prominent Egyptian American social scientist and advocate of civil rights. Ibrahim was released from prison in December 2002.
30. On the perils and pitfalls of secularism more generally, see Juergensmeyer, note 1, New Cold War? Casanova, note 8; Peter L. Berger, "The Desecularization of the World: A Global Overview," in Peter L. Berger, ed., The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Ethics and Public Policy Center and Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999); John Milbank, Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990, 1993); William E. Connolly, Why I Am Not a Secularist (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999); R. Scott Appleby, The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000); John Keane, "Secularism?" in David Marquand and Ronald L. Nettler, eds., Religion and Democracy (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000); Talal Asad, Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2003); and Charles Taylor, "Modes of Secularism," in Rajeev Bhargava, ed., Secularism and Its Critics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).
31. On the perils and pitfalls of secularism more generally, see Juergensmeyer, note 1, New Cold War? Casanova, note 8; Peter L. Berger, "The Desecularization of the World: A Global Overview," in Peter L. Berger, ed., The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Ethics and Public Policy Center and Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999); John Milbank, Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990, 1993); William E. Connolly, Why I Am Not a Secularist (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999); R. Scott Appleby, The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000); John Keane, "Secularism?" in David Marquand and Ronald L. Nettler, eds., Religion and Democracy (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000); Talal Asad, Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2003); and Charles Taylor, "Modes of Secularism," in Rajeev Bhargava, ed., Secularism and Its Critics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).
32. On the perils and pitfalls of secularism more generally, see Juergensmeyer, note 1, New Cold War? Casanova, note 8; Peter L. Berger, "The Desecularization of the World: A Global Overview," in Peter L. Berger, ed., The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Ethics and Public Policy Center and Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999); John Milbank, Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990, 1993); William E. Connolly, Why I Am Not a Secularist (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999); R. Scott Appleby, The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000); John Keane, "Secularism?" in David Marquand and Ronald L. Nettler, eds., Religion and Democracy (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000); Talal Asad, Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2003); and Charles Taylor, "Modes of Secularism," in Rajeev Bhargava, ed., Secularism and Its Critics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).
33. On the perils and pitfalls of secularism more generally, see Juergensmeyer, note 1, New Cold War? Casanova, note 8; Peter L. Berger, "The Desecularization of the World: A Global Overview," in Peter L. Berger, ed., The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Ethics and Public Policy Center and Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999); John Milbank, Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990, 1993); William E. Connolly, Why I Am Not a Secularist (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999); R. Scott Appleby, The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000); John Keane, "Secularism?" in David Marquand and Ronald L. Nettler, eds., Religion and Democracy (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000); Talal Asad, Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2003); and Charles Taylor, "Modes of Secularism," in Rajeev Bhargava, ed., Secularism and Its Critics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).
34. On the perils and pitfalls of secularism more generally, see Juergensmeyer, note 1, New Cold War? Casanova, note 8; Peter L. Berger, "The Desecularization of the World: A Global Overview," in Peter L. Berger, ed., The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Ethics and Public Policy Center and Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999); John Milbank, Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990, 1993); William E. Connolly, Why I Am Not a Secularist (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999); R. Scott Appleby, The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000); John Keane, "Secularism?" in David Marquand and Ronald L. Nettler, eds., Religion and Democracy (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000); Talal Asad, Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2003); and Charles Taylor, "Modes of Secularism," in Rajeev Bhargava, ed., Secularism and Its Critics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).
35. On the perils and pitfalls of secularism more generally, see Juergensmeyer, note 1, New Cold War? Casanova, note 8; Peter L. Berger, "The Desecularization of the World: A Global Overview," in Peter L. Berger, ed., The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Ethics and Public Policy Center and Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999); John Milbank, Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990, 1993); William E. Connolly, Why I Am Not a Secularist (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999); R. Scott Appleby, The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000); John Keane, "Secularism?" in David Marquand and Ronald L. Nettler, eds., Religion and Democracy (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000); Talal Asad, Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2003); and Charles Taylor, "Modes of Secularism," in Rajeev Bhargava, ed., Secularism and Its Critics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).
36. On the perils and pitfalls of secularism more generally, see Juergensmeyer, note 1, New Cold War? Casanova, note 8; Peter L. Berger, "The Desecularization of the World: A Global Overview," in Peter L. Berger, ed., The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Ethics and Public Policy Center and Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999); John Milbank, Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990, 1993); William E. Connolly, Why I Am Not a Secularist (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999); R. Scott Appleby, The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000); John Keane, "Secularism?" in David Marquand and Ronald L. Nettler, eds., Religion and Democracy (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000); Talal Asad, Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2003); and Charles Taylor, "Modes of Secularism," in Rajeev Bhargava, ed., Secularism and Its Critics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).
37. On the perils and pitfalls of secularism more generally, see Juergensmeyer, note 1, New Cold War? Casanova, note 8; Peter L. Berger, "The Desecularization of the World: A Global Overview," in Peter L. Berger, ed., The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Ethics and Public Policy Center and Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999); John Milbank, Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990, 1993); William E. Connolly, Why I Am Not a Secularist (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999); R. Scott Appleby, The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000); John Keane, "Secularism?" in David Marquand and Ronald L. Nettler, eds., Religion and Democracy (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000); Talal Asad, Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2003); and Charles Taylor, "Modes of Secularism," in Rajeev Bhargava, ed., Secularism and Its Critics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).
38. Nilüfer Göle, The Forbidden Modern: Civilization and Veiling (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), p. 4.
39. Bassam Tibi, "Post-Bipolar Order in Crisis: The Challenge of Politicised Islam," Millennium 29, no. 3 (2000): 845.
40. On the motives of the hostage takers, see David Patrick Houghton, U.S. Foreign Policy and the Hostage Crisis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), esp. chap. 3, "The Origins of the Crisis."
41. Ervand Abrahamian's Iran Between Two Revolutions (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982) is the landmark study of the revolution, along with Nikki Keddie's Roots of Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981). Other notable books include Said Amir Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); James A. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran (New York: Random House, 1985); Misagh Parsa, Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution (Oxford: Columbia University Press, 1993); Fred Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the Middle East (London: Tauris, 1996); Nikki Keddi, Iran and the Muslim World, Resistance and Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1995); Robin Wright, The Last Great Revolution: Turmoil and Transformation (New York: Knopf, 2000) ; Dariush Zahedi, Iranian Revolution Then and Now: Indicators of Regime Instability (Boulder: Westview Press, 2000) ; and Ali Mirsepassi, Intellectual Discourse and the Politics of Modernization: Negotiating Modernity in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Khomeini's main writings can be found in Islam and Revolution, trans. Hamid Algar (Berkeley, Calif.: Mizan Press, 1981).
42. Ervand Abrahamian's Iran Between Two Revolutions (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982) is the landmark study of the revolution, along with Nikki Keddie's Roots of Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981). Other notable books include Said Amir Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); James A. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran (New York: Random House, 1985); Misagh Parsa, Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution (Oxford: Columbia University Press, 1993); Fred Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the Middle East (London: Tauris, 1996); Nikki Keddi, Iran and the Muslim World, Resistance and Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1995); Robin Wright, The Last Great Revolution: Turmoil and Transformation (New York: Knopf, 2000) ; Dariush Zahedi, Iranian Revolution Then and Now: Indicators of Regime Instability (Boulder: Westview Press, 2000) ; and Ali Mirsepassi, Intellectual Discourse and the Politics of Modernization: Negotiating Modernity in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Khomeini's main writings can be found in Islam and Revolution, trans. Hamid Algar (Berkeley, Calif.: Mizan Press, 1981).
43. Ervand Abrahamian's Iran Between Two Revolutions (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982) is the landmark study of the revolution, along with Nikki Keddie's Roots of Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981). Other notable books include Said Amir Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); James A. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran (New York: Random House, 1985); Misagh Parsa, Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution (Oxford: Columbia University Press, 1993); Fred Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the Middle East (London: Tauris, 1996); Nikki Keddi, Iran and the Muslim World, Resistance and Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1995); Robin Wright, The Last Great Revolution: Turmoil and Transformation (New York: Knopf, 2000) ; Dariush Zahedi, Iranian Revolution Then and Now: Indicators of Regime Instability (Boulder: Westview Press, 2000) ; and Ali Mirsepassi, Intellectual Discourse and the Politics of Modernization: Negotiating Modernity in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Khomeini's main writings can be found in Islam and Revolution, trans. Hamid Algar (Berkeley, Calif.: Mizan Press, 1981).
44. Ervand Abrahamian's Iran Between Two Revolutions (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982) is the landmark study of the revolution, along with Nikki Keddie's Roots of Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981). Other notable books include Said Amir Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); James A. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran (New York: Random House, 1985); Misagh Parsa, Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution (Oxford: Columbia University Press, 1993); Fred Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the Middle East (London: Tauris, 1996); Nikki Keddi, Iran and the Muslim World, Resistance and Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1995); Robin Wright, The Last Great Revolution: Turmoil and Transformation (New York: Knopf, 2000) ; Dariush Zahedi, Iranian Revolution Then and Now: Indicators of Regime Instability (Boulder: Westview Press, 2000) ; and Ali Mirsepassi, Intellectual Discourse and the Politics of Modernization: Negotiating Modernity in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Khomeini's main writings can be found in Islam and Revolution, trans. Hamid Algar (Berkeley, Calif.: Mizan Press, 1981).
45. Ervand Abrahamian's Iran Between Two Revolutions (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982) is the landmark study of the revolution, along with Nikki Keddie's Roots of Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981). Other notable books include Said Amir Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); James A. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran (New York: Random House, 1985); Misagh Parsa, Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution (Oxford: Columbia University Press, 1993); Fred Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the Middle East (London: Tauris, 1996); Nikki Keddi, Iran and the Muslim World, Resistance and Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1995); Robin Wright, The Last Great Revolution: Turmoil and Transformation (New York: Knopf, 2000) ; Dariush Zahedi, Iranian Revolution Then and Now: Indicators of Regime Instability (Boulder: Westview Press, 2000) ; and Ali Mirsepassi, Intellectual Discourse and the Politics of Modernization: Negotiating Modernity in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Khomeini's main writings can be found in Islam and Revolution, trans. Hamid Algar (Berkeley, Calif.: Mizan Press, 1981).
46. Ervand Abrahamian's Iran Between Two Revolutions (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982) is the landmark study of the revolution, along with Nikki Keddie's Roots of Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981). Other notable books include Said Amir Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); James A. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran (New York: Random House, 1985); Misagh Parsa, Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution (Oxford: Columbia University Press, 1993); Fred Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the Middle East (London: Tauris, 1996); Nikki Keddi, Iran and the Muslim World, Resistance and Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1995); Robin Wright, The Last Great Revolution: Turmoil and Transformation (New York: Knopf, 2000) ; Dariush Zahedi, Iranian Revolution Then and Now: Indicators of Regime Instability (Boulder: Westview Press, 2000) ; and Ali Mirsepassi, Intellectual Discourse and the Politics of Modernization: Negotiating Modernity in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Khomeini's main writings can be found in Islam and Revolution, trans. Hamid Algar (Berkeley, Calif.: Mizan Press, 1981).
47. Ervand Abrahamian's Iran Between Two Revolutions (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982) is the landmark study of the revolution, along with Nikki Keddie's Roots of Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981). Other notable books include Said Amir Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); James A. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran (New York: Random House, 1985); Misagh Parsa, Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution (Oxford: Columbia University Press, 1993); Fred Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the Middle East (London: Tauris, 1996); Nikki Keddi, Iran and the Muslim World, Resistance and Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1995); Robin Wright, The Last Great Revolution: Turmoil and Transformation (New York: Knopf, 2000) ; Dariush Zahedi, Iranian Revolution Then and Now: Indicators of Regime Instability (Boulder: Westview Press, 2000) ; and Ali Mirsepassi, Intellectual Discourse and the Politics of Modernization: Negotiating Modernity in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Khomeini's main writings can be found in Islam and Revolution, trans. Hamid Algar (Berkeley, Calif.: Mizan Press, 1981).
48. Ervand Abrahamian's Iran Between Two Revolutions (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982) is the landmark study of the revolution, along with Nikki Keddie's Roots of Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981). Other notable books include Said Amir Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); James A. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran (New York: Random House, 1985); Misagh Parsa, Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution (Oxford: Columbia University Press, 1993); Fred Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the Middle East (London: Tauris, 1996); Nikki Keddi, Iran and the Muslim World, Resistance and Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1995); Robin Wright, The Last Great Revolution: Turmoil and Transformation (New York: Knopf, 2000) ; Dariush Zahedi, Iranian Revolution Then and Now: Indicators of Regime Instability (Boulder: Westview Press, 2000) ; and Ali Mirsepassi, Intellectual Discourse and the Politics of Modernization: Negotiating Modernity in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Khomeini's main writings can be found in Islam and Revolution, trans. Hamid Algar (Berkeley, Calif.: Mizan Press, 1981).
49. Ervand Abrahamian's Iran Between Two Revolutions (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982) is the landmark study of the revolution, along with Nikki Keddie's Roots of Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981). Other notable books include Said Amir Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); James A. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran (New York: Random House, 1985); Misagh Parsa, Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution (Oxford: Columbia University Press, 1993); Fred Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the Middle East (London: Tauris, 1996); Nikki Keddi, Iran and the Muslim World, Resistance and Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1995); Robin Wright, The Last Great Revolution: Turmoil and Transformation (New York: Knopf, 2000) ; Dariush Zahedi, Iranian Revolution Then and Now: Indicators of Regime Instability (Boulder: Westview Press, 2000) ; and Ali Mirsepassi, Intellectual Discourse and the Politics of Modernization: Negotiating Modernity in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Khomeini's main writings can be found in Islam and Revolution, trans. Hamid Algar (Berkeley, Calif.: Mizan Press, 1981).
50. Ervand Abrahamian's Iran Between Two Revolutions (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982) is the landmark study of the revolution, along with Nikki Keddie's Roots of Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981). Other notable books include Said Amir Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); James A. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran (New York: Random House, 1985); Misagh Parsa, Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution (Oxford: Columbia University Press, 1993); Fred Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the Middle East (London: Tauris, 1996); Nikki Keddi, Iran and the Muslim World, Resistance and Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1995); Robin Wright, The Last Great Revolution: Turmoil and Transformation (New York: Knopf, 2000) ; Dariush Zahedi, Iranian Revolution Then and Now: Indicators of Regime Instability (Boulder: Westview Press, 2000) ; and Ali Mirsepassi, Intellectual Discourse and the Politics of Modernization: Negotiating Modernity in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Khomeini's main writings can be found in Islam and Revolution, trans. Hamid Algar (Berkeley, Calif.: Mizan Press, 1981).
51. Ervand Abrahamian's Iran Between Two Revolutions (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982) is the landmark study of the revolution, along with Nikki Keddie's Roots of Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981). Other notable books include Said Amir Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); James A. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Gary Sick, All Fall Down: America's Tragic Encounter with Iran (New York: Random House, 1985); Misagh Parsa, Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution (Oxford: Columbia University Press, 1993); Fred Halliday, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the Middle East (London: Tauris, 1996); Nikki Keddi, Iran and the Muslim World, Resistance and Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1995); Robin Wright, The Last Great Revolution: Turmoil and Transformation (New York: Knopf, 2000) ; Dariush Zahedi, Iranian Revolution Then and Now: Indicators of Regime Instability (Boulder: Westview Press, 2000) ; and Ali Mirsepassi, Intellectual Discourse and the Politics of Modernization: Negotiating Modernity in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Khomeini's main writings can be found in Islam and Revolution, trans. Hamid Algar (Berkeley, Calif.: Mizan Press, 1981).
52. John L. Esposito, "Islam and Secularism in the Twenty-First Century," in John L. Esposito and Azzam Tamimi, eds., Islam and Secularism in the Middle East (New York: New York University Press, 2000), p. 3.
53. Keane, note 18, p. 6.
54. Casanova, note 8, p. 13.
55. See Elizabeth Shakman Hurd, "Chain Reactions: U.S. and Britain Got What They Wanted in Iran in 1953, But Where Did It Lead?" Chicago Tribune, March 9, 2003. For a recent popular account of the coup, see Stephen Kinzer, All the Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror (New York: Wiley & Sons, 2003).
56. See Elizabeth Shakman Hurd, "Chain Reactions: U.S. and Britain Got What They Wanted in Iran in 1953, But Where Did It Lead?" Chicago Tribune, March 9, 2003. For a recent popular account of the coup, see Stephen Kinzer, All the Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror (New York: Wiley & Sons, 2003).
57. Esposito, Islamic Threat, note 17, p. 108. On the 1953 coup, see Mark J. Gasiorowski, "The 1953 Coup d'Etat in Iran," International Journal of Middle East Studies 19 (August 1987): 261-286; and David Painter, "The United States, Great Britain, and Mossadegh," Pew Case Studies in International Affairs #332 (Washington, D.C.: Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, Georgetown University, 1993).
58. Esposito, Islamic Threat, note 17, p. 108. On the 1953 coup, see Mark J. Gasiorowski, "The 1953 Coup d'Etat in Iran," International Journal of Middle East Studies 19 (August 1987): 261-286; and David Painter, "The United States, Great Britain, and Mossadegh," Pew Case Studies in International Affairs #332 (Washington, D.C.: Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, Georgetown University, 1993).
59. Esposito, Islamic Threat, note 17, p. 108. On the 1953 coup, see Mark J. Gasiorowski, "The 1953 Coup d'Etat in Iran," International Journal of Middle East Studies 19 (August 1987): 261-286; and David Painter, "The United States, Great Britain, and Mossadegh," Pew Case Studies in International Affairs #332 (Washington, D.C.: Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, Georgetown University, 1993).
60. Esposito, Islamic Threat, note 17, p. 108.
61. The Nixon Doctrine, which was a response to U.S. involvement in Vietnam, declared that the United States would ensure the realization of its foreign-policy objectives by supporting regional allies rather than through direct intervention.
62. Douglas Little, American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East since 1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), p. 145.
63. I b i d.
64. Iraq also did not participate in the embargo due to its rivalry with Saudi Arabia and other conservative oil-producing states.
65. Maloney, note 9, p. 96.
66. I b i d.
67. Esposito, Islamic Threat, note 17, p. 107.
68. I b i d.
69. Gary A. Donaldson, America at War Since 1945: Politics and Diplomacy in Korea, Vietnam, and the Gulf War (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1996), pp. 84-85. Melani McAlister notes that "the internal security police in Iran, SAVAK, were known for torture and murder; they were also known to be trained and funded by the CIA": McAlister, Epic Encounters: Culture, Media, and U.S. Interests in the Middle East, 1945-2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), p. 203.
70. Gary A. Donaldson, America at War Since 1945: Politics and Diplomacy in Korea, Vietnam, and the Gulf War (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1996), pp. 84-85. Melani McAlister notes that "the internal security police in Iran, SAVAK, were known for torture and murder; they were also known to be trained and funded by the CIA": McAlister, Epic Encounters: Culture, Media, and U.S. Interests in the Middle East, 1945-2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), p. 203.
71. "Mosques served as centers for dissent, political organization, agitation and sanctuary. The government could ban and limit political meetings and gatherings, but it could not close the mosques or ban prayer": John L. Esposito, Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992, 2d ed.), p. 110.
72. McAlister, note 37, p. 204. Esposito confirms that "the Revolutionary coalition comprised a diverse assortment of liberal, leftist, and religious groups that agreed on little other than their antipathy for the shah and the institution of absolute monarchy. Their negative consensus and the sheer breadth of their ideological and socioeconomic agendas set the stage for a bitter feud after the coup": Esposito, Islamic Threat, note 17, p. 102.
73. McAlister, note 37, p. 204. Esposito confirms that "the Revolutionary coalition comprised a diverse assortment of liberal, leftist, and religious groups that agreed on little other than their antipathy for the shah and the institution of absolute monarchy. Their negative consensus and the sheer breadth of their ideological and socioeconomic agendas set the stage for a bitter feud after the coup": Esposito, Islamic Threat, note 17, p. 102.
74. Esposito, Islamic Threat, note 17, p. 109.
75. Ibid., p. 103.
76. Ibid., p. 115.
77. Frantz Fanon, A Dying Colonialism (London: Writers and Readers Press, 1967), p. 65 (emph. in orig.).
78. Maloney, note 9, p. 101.
79. In his illuminating study of twentieth-century Iranian politics, Ali Mirsepassi attributes the rise of clerical hardliners and the eclipse of moderates such as Mehdi Barzargan and Abolhassan Bani-Sadr to three factors: (1) the formation of an autocratic state in post-1953 Iran; (2) a sense of social alienation due to modernization processes during the 1960s and 1970s; and (3) the transformation of the Shi'a hierarchy and construction of a new political Islamic ideology: Mirsepassi, note 22, pp. 65-66.
80. Ibid., p. 76. "The ascent of political Islam owes much to the fragile foundations of secular politics and to the political vacuum that the Shah's regime effectively created in the 1960s and 1970s": ibid., p. 73. Dissenting Iranian intellectuals such as Jalal Al-e Ahmad and Ali Shari'ati proposed alternatives to the shah's politics, which attempted to reconcile modernity with Islamic tradition, rather than rejecting the latter entirely in favor of the former: ibid., p. 77.
81. Ibid., p. 76. "The ascent of political Islam owes much to the fragile foundations of secular politics and to the political vacuum that the Shah's regime effectively created in the 1960s and 1970s": ibid., p. 73. Dissenting Iranian intellectuals such as Jalal Al-e Ahmad and Ali Shari'ati proposed alternatives to the shah's politics, which attempted to reconcile modernity with Islamic tradition, rather than rejecting the latter entirely in favor of the former: ibid., p. 77.
82. Ibid., pp. 70-71.
83. Ibid., pp. 94.
84. Maloney, note 9, p. 98.
85. Juergensmeyer, note 1, New Cold War? p. 19.
86. Mirsepassi, note 22, p. 11.
87. See Melani McAlister, "Iran, Islam and the Terrorist Threat, 1979-1989," in McAlister, note 37, pp. 198-234.
88. Ibid., pp. 105.
89. Jocelyne Cesari, "Islam in Europe: Modernity and Globalization Revisited," lecture, University of Wisconsin-Madison, May 3, 2001.
90. Mirsepassi, note 22, p. 17.
91. Talal Asad, Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), p. 192.
92. See Connolly, note 18, p. 21.
93. On the cruelties of daily life as a woman in Iran during the 1980s and 1990s, see Azar Nafisi, Reading Lolita in Tehran: A Memoir in Books (New York: Random House, 2003).
94. Casanova, note 8, pp. 219-220. On Khomeini's ambitious and ambiguous political agenda, see Daniel Brumberg, Reinventing Khomeini: The Struggle for Reform in Iran (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001). As Brumberg argues persuasively, "behind his charisma, and woven into its very fabric, was a contradiction between Khomeini's belief that the people should play a role in choosing their government, and his strong commitment to revolutionary action and clerical rule under the leadership of a quasi-infallible, charismatic Supreme Leader": ibid., p. 3.
95. Casanova, note 8, pp. 219-220. On Khomeini's ambitious and ambiguous political agenda, see Daniel Brumberg, Reinventing Khomeini: The Struggle for Reform in Iran (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001). As Brumberg argues persuasively, "behind his charisma, and woven into its very fabric, was a contradiction between Khomeini's belief that the people should play a role in choosing their government, and his strong commitment to revolutionary action and clerical rule under the leadership of a quasi-infallible, charismatic Supreme Leader": ibid., p. 3.
96. Casanova, note 8, pp. 219-220. On Khomeini's ambitious and ambiguous political agenda, see Daniel Brumberg, Reinventing Khomeini: The Struggle for Reform in Iran (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001). As Brumberg argues persuasively, "behind his charisma, and woven into its very fabric, was a contradiction between Khomeini's belief that the people should play a role in choosing their government, and his strong commitment to revolutionary action and clerical rule under the leadership of a quasi-infallible, charismatic Supreme Leader": ibid., p. 3.
97. Robert D. Lee, introduction to Mohammed Arkoun, Rethinking Islam: Common Questions, Uncommon Answers (ed. and trans. Robert D. Lee (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994), p. x.
98. Esposito, Islamic Threat, note 38, p. 101. Esposito writes that "the Pahlavis, like the Sadats, spoke English, dressed in well-tailored Western clothes, and appeared on U.S. television, interviewed by the likes of Barbara Walters. (They were like 'us')": ibid., p. 105.
99. Esposito, Islamic Threat, note 38, p. 101. Esposito writes that "the Pahlavis, like the Sadats, spoke English, dressed in well-tailored Western clothes, and appeared on U.S. television, interviewed by the likes of Barbara Walters. (They were like 'us')": ibid., p. 105.
100. Casanova, note 8, p. 20.
101. On the concept of horror alieni, see Michael Dillon, "The Scandal of the Refugee: Some Reflections on the 'Inter' of International Relations and Continental Thought," in David Campbell and Michael J. Shapiro, eds., Moral Spaces: Rethinking Ethics and World Politics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1999), p. 104.
102. This phrase is borrowed from Mohja Kahf's book about the Western narrative of Muslim women. She notes that "this [Western] narrative has a genealogy and logic of its own, emerging from developments in Western representations of gender, of the self, and of the foreign or Other": Kahf, Western Representations of the Muslim Woman: From Termagant to Odalisque (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999), p. 2.
103. McAlister, note 37, p. 209.
104. On November 18, 1979, Yassir Arafat negotiated the release of thirteen female and African American hostages who were not being held as suspected spies, on the grounds that "neither of these groups was as central as white men to the dominant power structure of the United States": McAlister, note 37, p. 210; see also Charles W. Kegley, Jr., "Hard Choices: The Carter Administration's Hostage Rescue Mission in Iran," Pew Case Studies in International Affairs #360 (Washington, D.C.: Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, Georgetown University, 1994).
105. On November 18, 1979, Yassir Arafat negotiated the release of thirteen female and African American hostages who were not being held as suspected spies, on the grounds that "neither of these groups was as central as white men to the dominant power structure of the United States": McAlister, note 37, p. 210; see also Charles W. Kegley, Jr., "Hard Choices: The Carter Administration's Hostage Rescue Mission in Iran," Pew Case Studies in International Affairs #360 (Washington, D.C.: Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, Georgetown University, 1994).
106. McAlister, note 37, p. 210.
107. I b i d.
108. Ibid., p. 211.
109. Despite overtures to the United States from the Iranians since 1997, President George W. Bush designated the Islamic Republic as part of a tripartite "axis of evil" that included North Korea and Iraq under Saddam Hussein.
110. Bernard Lewis and Samuel Huntington are examples of this perspective.
111. McAlister, note 37, p. 211.
112. See Juergensmeyer, note 5, pp. 380-381.
113. See, further, William E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (expanded ed.), p. xix.
114. Ibid., p. 16. Those interested in Derrida might want to consider his description of deconstruction in light of Connolly's suggestion: "An opposition of metaphysical concepts . . . is never the face-to-face of two terms, but a hierarchy and an order of subordination. Deconstruction cannot limit itself or proceed immediately to a neutralization: it must . . . practice an overturning of the classical opposition and a general displacement of the system. It is only on this condition that deconstruction will provide itself with the means with which to intervene in the field of oppositions that it criticizes": Jacques Derrida, "Signature Event Context," in Margins of Philosophy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), p. 329.
115. Ibid., p. 16. Those interested in Derrida might want to consider his description of deconstruction in light of Connolly's suggestion: "An opposition of metaphysical concepts . . . is never the face-to-face of two terms, but a hierarchy and an order of subordination. Deconstruction cannot limit itself or proceed immediately to a neutralization: it must . . . practice an overturning of the classical opposition and a general displacement of the system. It is only on this condition that deconstruction will provide itself with the means with which to intervene in the field of oppositions that it criticizes": Jacques Derrida, "Signature Event Context," in Margins of Philosophy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), p. 329.
116. On this subject, see Juergensmeyer, note 1, Terror in the Mind of God.
117. For more on the concept and practice of agonistic democracy, .see William E. Connolly, The Ethos of Pluralization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995).
118. I b i d.
119. Ibid., p. xx.
120. Eleanor Brown, "Lieberman's Revival of the Religious Left," New York Times, August 30, 2000, p. A27.
121. Jonathan Turley, "We Wish You a Merry Lawsuit: Santa Brings Lots of Litigation on Religious Symbols," Los Angeles Times, December 16, 2002.
122. Ibid. The Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals upheld this decision in July 2003; the U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear the case in August 2003. Moore is appealing again to the Supreme Court.
123. Quoted in David Gardner and Leyla Boulton, "An Islamist Seeking to be Europe's New Face," Financial Times, December 7, 2002.
124. Sumner is cited in Little, note 30, p. 117.
125. Martha Nussbaum, "Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism," in Joshua Cohen, ed., For Love of Country? 2d ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 2002), p. 11.
126. Boroujerdi, note 3, p. 5.