Multilevel selection and social evolution of insect societies

Naturwissenschaften

Volumn 91, Issue 6, 2004, Pages 291-304

  Korb, Judith ^a   Heinze, Jürgen ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF REGENSBURG   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALTRUISM; EVOLUTION; EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY; HIERARCHICAL SYSTEM; KIN SELECTION; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL INSECT;

DIPLOIDY; DISEASE RESISTANCE; GENETIC MARKER; HABITAT SELECTION; HAPLOIDY; INSECT; INSECT SOCIETY; KIN SELECTION; MOLECULAR EVOLUTION; NONHUMAN; REPRODUCTION; REVIEW; SEXUAL SELECTION; SOCIAL EVOLUTION;

APOIDEA; FORMICIDAE; HEXAPODA; HYMENOPTERA; INSECTA; VESPIDAE;

EID: 3142689027     PISSN: 00281042     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00114-004-0529-5     Document Type: Review

References (194)

1. Alexander RD (1974) The evolution of social behavior. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 5:325-383
2. Anderson C, McShea DW (2001) Individual versus social complexity, with particular reference to ant colonies. Biol Rev 76:211-237
3. Anderson C, Ratnieks FLW (1999) Task partitioning in insect societies. I. Effect of colony size on queuing delay and colony ergonomic efficiency. Am Nat 154:521-535
4. Aoki S (1987) Evolution of sterile soldiers in aphids. In: Itô Y, Brown JL, Kikkawa J (eds) Animal societies: theories and facts. Japan Scientific Societies, Tokyo, pp 53-65
5. Atlan A, Mercot H, Landre C, Montchamp-Moreau C (1997) The sex-ratio trait in Drosophila simulans: geographical distribution of distortion and resistance. Evolution 51:1886-1895
6. Baer B, Schmid-Hempel P (1999) Experimental variation in polyandry affects parasite load and fitness in a bumble-bee. Nature 397:151-153
7. Banschbach VA, Herbers JM (1996) Complex colony structure in social insects. II. Reproduction, queen-worker conflict, and levels of selection. Evolution 50:298-307
8. Bartz SH (1979) Evolution of eusociality in termites. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 76:5764-5768
9. Beekman M, Sumpter DJT, Ratnieks FLW (2001) Phase transition between disordered and ordered foraging in Pharaoh's ants. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:9703-9706
10. Beekman M, Komdeur J, Ratnieks FLW (2003) Reproductive conflicts in social animals: who has power? Trends Ecol Evol 188:277-282
11. Beshers SN, Fewell JH (2001) Models of division of labor in social insects. Annu Rev Entomol 46:413-440
12. Bonabeau E, Theraulaz G, Deneubourg JL, Aron S, Camazine S (1997) Self-organization in social insects. Trends Ecol Evol 12:188-193
13. Boomsma JJ, Grafen A (1990) Intraspecific variation in ant sex ratios and the Trivers-Hare hypothesis. Evolution 44:1026-1034
14. Boomsma JJ, Grafen A (1991) Colony-level sex ratio selection in the eusocial Hymenoptera. J Evol Biol 3:383-407
15. Boomsma JJ, Ratnieks FLW (1996) Paternity in social Hymenoptera. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 351:947-975
16. Bourke AFG (1988) Worker reproduction in the higher eusocial Hymenoptera. Q Rev Biol 63:291-311
17. Bourke AFG (1999) Colony size, social complexity and reproductive conflict in social insects. J Evol Biol 12:245-257
18. Bourke AFG, Franks NR (1995) Social evolution in ants. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
19. Braude S (2000) Dispersal and new colony formation in wild naked mole-rats: evidence against inbreeding as the system of mating. Behav Ecol 11:7-12
20. Brown WD, Keller L (2000) Colony sex ratios vary with queen number but not relatedness asymmetry in the ant Formica exsecta. Proc R Soc Lond B 267:1751-1757
21. Brown WD, Keller L, Sundström L (2002) Sex allocation in mound-building ants: the roles of resources and queen replenishment. Ecology 83:1945-1952
22. Buss L (1987) The evolution of individuality. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
23. Camazine S, Deneubourg JL, Franks N, Sneyd J, Theraulaz G, Bonabeau E (2001) Self-organization in biological systems. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
24. Chan GL, Hingle A, Bourke AFG (1999) Sex allocation in a facultatively polygynous ant: between-population and between-colony variation. Behav Ecol 10:409-421
25. Chapman TW, Crespi BJ, Kranz BD, Schwarz MP (2000) High relatedness and inbreeding at the origin of eusociality in gall-inducing thrips. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:1648-1650
26. Choe JC (1988) Worker reproduction and social evolution in ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). In: Trager JC (ed) Advances in myrmecology. Brill, Leiden, pp 163-187
27. Cockburn A (1998) Evolution of helping behaviour in cooperatively breeding birds. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 29:141-177
28. Coenen-Stass D, Schaarschmidt B, Lamprecht I (1980) Temperature distribution and calorimetric determination of heat production in the nest of the wood ant, Formica polyctena (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). Ecology 61:238-244
29. Crozier RH, Fjerdingstad EJ (2001) Polyandry in social Hymenoptera: disunity in diversity? Ann Zool Fenn 38:267-285
30. Crozier RH, Luykx P (1985) The evolution of termite eusociality is unlikely to have been based on a male-haploid analogy. Am Nat 126:867-869
31. Crozier RH, Pamilo P (1996) Evolution of social insect colonies: sex allocation and kin selection. Oxford University Press, Oxford
32. Cuvillier-Hot V, Gadagkar R, Peeters C, Cobb M (2002) Regulation of reproduction in a queenless ant: aggression, pheromones and reduction in conflict. Proc R Soc Lond B 269:1295-1300
33. Darwin C (1859) On the origin of species by means of natural selection. John Murray, London
34. Darwin C (1871) The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. Appleton, New York
35. Dawkins R (1976) The selfish gene. Oxford University Press, Oxford
36. Deligne J, Quennedey A, Blum MS (1981) The enemies and defense mechanisms of termites. In: Hermann HR (Ed) Social insects, II. Academic Press, New York, pp 1-76
37. Dugatkin LA, Reeve HK (1994) Behavioral ecology and levels of selection: dissolving the group selection controversy. Adv Stud Behav 23:101-133
38. Emlen ST (1997) Predicting family dynamics in social vertebrates. In: Krebs JR, Davies NB (eds) Behavioural ecology, 4th edn. Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp 228-253
39. Fisher RA (1930) The genetical theory of natural selection. Clarendon, Oxford
40. Fjerdingstad EJ (2004) Multiple paternity and colony homeostasis in Lasius niger ants. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 55: 10.1007/s00265-004-0759-8
41. Fjerdingstad EJ, Gertsch PJ, Keller L (2002) Why do some social insect queens mate with several males? Testing the sex-ratio manipulation hypothesis in Lasius niger. Evolution 56:553-562
42. Foitzik S, Heinze J (2000) Intraspecific parasitism and split sex ratios in a monogynous, monandrous ant (Leptothorax nylanderi). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 47:424-431
43. Foitzik S, Herbers JM (2001) Colony structure of a slavemaking ant. I. Intracolony relatedness, worker reproduction, and poly-domy. Evolution 55:307-315
44. Foitzik S, Strätz M, Heinze J (2003) Ecology, life history, and resource allocation in the ant, Leptothorax nylanderi. J Evol Biol 16:670-680
45. Foster KR, Gulliver J, Ratnieks FLW (2002) Why workers do not reproduce: worker policing in the European hornet Vespa crabro. Insectes Soc 49:41-44
46. Fournier D, Keller L, Passera L, Aron S (2003) Colony sex ratios vary with breeding system but not relatedness asymmetry in the facultatively polygynous ant Pheidole pallidula. Evolution 57:1336-1342
47. Frank SA (1985) Hierarchical selection theory and sex ratio. II. On applying the theory, and a test with fig wasps. Evolution 39:949-964
48. Frank SA (1990) Sex allocation theory for birds and mammals. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 21:13-55
49. Frank SA (1996) Models of parasite virulence. Q Rev Biol 71:37-78
50. Frank SA (1997) Foundations of social evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
51. Franks NR, Pratt SC, Mallon EB, Britton NF, Sumpter DJT (2002) Information flow, opinion polling and collective intelligence in house-hunting social insects. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 357:1567-1583
52. Frumhoff PC, Baker J (1988) A genetic component to the division of labour within honey bee colonies. Nature 333:358-361
53. Fuchs S, Schade V (1994) Lower performance in honeybee colonies of uniform paternity. Apidologie 25:155-168
54. Gadagkar R (1985) Evolution of insect sociality: a review of some attempts to test modern theories. Proc Indian Acad Sci (Anim Sci) 94:309-324
55. Gadagkar R (1990) Evolution of eusociality: the advantage of assured fitness returns. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 329:17-25
56. Gadau J, Strehl C-P, Oettler J, Hölldobler B (2003) Determinants of intracolonial relatedness in Pogonomyrmex rugosus (Hymenoptera; Formicidae): mating frequency and brood raids. Mol Ecol 12:1931-1938
57. Giraud T, Pedersen JS, Keller L (2002) Evolution of supercolonies: the Argentine ants of southern Europe. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:6075-6079
58. Goodnight CJ, Stevens L (1997) Experimental studies of group selection: what do they tell us about group selection in nature? Am Nat 150:859-879
59. Gordon DM (1996) The organization of work in social insect colonies. Nature 380:121-124
60. Grafen A (1984) Natural selection, kin selection and group selection. In: Krebs JR, Davies NB (eds) Behavioural ecology, 2nd edn. Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp 62-84
61. Greeff J (1996) Effects of thelytokous worker reproduction in kin selection and conflict in the Cape honeybee, Apis mellifera capensis. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 351:617-625
62. Griffin AS, West SA (2003) Kin discrimination and the benefit of helping in cooperatively breeding vertebrates. Science 302:634-636
63. Haldane JBS (1932) The causes of evolution. Longmans Green, London
64. Hamilton WD (1963) The evolution of altruistic behavior. Am Nat 97:354-356
65. Hamilton WD (1964) The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I, II. J Theor Biol 7:1-52
66. Hamilton WD (1970) Selfish and spiteful behaviour in an evolutionary model. Nature 228:1218-1220
67. Hamilton WD (1972) Altruism and related phenomena, mainly in social insects. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 3:193-232
68. Hamilton WD (1975) Innate social aptitudes in man: an approach from evolutionary genetics. In: Fox R (ed) Biosocial anthropology. Malaby, London, pp 133-155
69. Hammond RL, Bruford MW, Bourke AFG (2002) Ant workers selfishly bias sex ratios by manipulating female development. Proc R Soc Lond B 269:173-178
70. Hammond RL, Bruford MW, Bourke AFG (2003) Male parentage does not vary with colony kin structure in a multiple-queen ant. J Evol Biol 16:446-455
71. Hartmann A, Heinze J (2003) Lay eggs, live longer: division of labor and life span in a clonal ant species. Evolution 57:2424-2429
72. Hartmann A, Wantia J, Torres JA, Heinze J (2003) Worker policing without genetic conflicts in a clonal ant. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:12836-12840
73. Heinrich B (1993) The hot-blooded insect. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
74. Heinze J (1995) Reproductive skew and relatedness in Leptothorax ants. Proc R Soc Lond B 261:375-379
75. Heinze J (1996) The reproductive potential of workers in slave-making ants. Insectes Soc 43:319-328
76. Heinze J, Hölldobler B (1995) Thelytokous parthenogenesis and dominance hierarchies in the ponerine ant, Platythyrea punctata (F. Smith). Naturwissenschaften 82:40-41
77. Heinze J, Cover SP, Hölldobler B (1995) Neither worker nor queen: an ant caste specialized on the production of male eggs. Psyche 102:173-185
78. Heinze J, Strätz M, Pedersen JS, Haberl M (2000) Microsatellite analysis suggests occasional worker reproduction in the monogynous ant Crematogaster smithi. Insectes Soc 47:299-301
79. Helms KR (1999) Colony sex ratios, conflict between queens and workers, and apparent queen control in the ant Pheidole desertorum. Evolution 53:1470-1478
80. Henderson G (1998) Primer pheromones and possible soldier caste influence on the evolution of sociality in lower termites. In: Vander Meer RK, Breed MD, Espelie KE, Winston ML (eds) Pheromone communication in social insects. Westview, Boulder, Colo., pp 314-330
81. Herbers JM (1982) Queen-number and colony ergonomics in Leptothorax longispinosus. In: Breed MD, Michener CD, Evans HE (eds) The biology of social insects. Westview, Boulder, Colo., pp 238-242
82. Hölldobler B, Wilson EO (1990) The ants. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
83. Horstmann K (1983) Regulation der Temperatur in Waldameisennestern (Formica polyctena Förster). Z Naturforsch 38:508-510
84. Horstmann K (1990) Zur Entstehung des Wärmezentrums in Waldameisennestern (Formica polyctena Förster; Hymenoptera, Formicidae). Zool Beitr NF 33:105-124
85. Iwanishi S, Hasegawa E, Ohkawara K (2003) Worker oviposition and policing behaviour in the myrmicine ant Aphaenogaster smythiesi japonica Forel. Anim Behav 66:513-519
86. Jeanne R (1975) The adaptiveness of social wasp nest architecture. Q Rev Biol 50:267-287
87. Jeon J, Choe JC (2003) Reproductive skew and the origin of sterile castes. Am Nat 161:206-224
88. Karsai I, Wenzel JW (1998) Productivity, individual-level and colony-level flexibility, and organization of work as consequences of colony size. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:8665-8669
89. Kaspari M, Vargo EL (1995) Colony size as a buffer against seasonality: Bergmann's rule in social insects. Am Nat 146:610-632
90. Keller L (1995) Social life: the paradox of multiple-queen colonies. Trends Evol Ecol 10:355-360
91. Keller L (1997) Indiscriminate altruism: unduly nice parents and siblings. Trend Ecol Evol 12:99-103
92. Keller L, Nonacs P (1993) The role of queen pheromones in social insects; queen control or queen signal? Anim Behav 45:787-794
93. Keller L, Reeve HK (1994) Genetic variability, queen number, and polyandry in social Hymenoptera. Evolution 48:694-704
94. Keller L, Reeve HK (1995) Why do females mate with multiple males? The sexually selected sperm hypothesis. Adv Stud Behav 24:291-315
95. Keller L, Reeve HK (1999) Dynamics of conflicts within insect societies. In: Keller L (ed) Levels of selection in evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., pp 153-175
96. Korb J (2003) Thermoregulation and ventilation of termite mounds. Naturwissenschaften 90:212-219
97. Korb J, Linsenmair KE (2000) Ventilation of termite mounds: new results require a new model. Behav Ecol 11:486-494
98. Krause J, Ruxton GD (2002) Living in groups. Oxford University Press, Oxford
99. Krieger MJB, Keller L (2000) Mating frequency and genetic structure of the Argentine ant Linepithema humile. Mol Ecol 9:119-126
100. Kropotkin P (1902) Mutual aid: a factor of evolution. William Heinemann, London
101. Lacy RC (1980) The evolution of eusociality in termites: a haplodiploid analogy? Am Nat 116:449-451
102. Leigh EG (1983) When does the good of the group override the advantage of the individual? Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 80:2985-2989
103. Leigh EG (1991) Genes, bees and ecosystems: the evolution of a common interest among individuals. Trends Ecol Evol 6:257-262
104. Lin N, Michener CD (1972) Evolution of sociality in insects. Q Rev Biol 14:131-159
105. Lindauer M (1954) Temperaturregulierung und Wasserhaushalt im Bienenstaat. Z Vergl Physiol 36:391-432
106. Lüscher M (1956) Die Entstehung von Ersatzgeschlechtstieren bei der Termite Kalotermes flavicollis (Frabr.). Insectes Soc 3:119-128
107. Lüscher M (1961) Air-conditioned termite nests. Sci Am 204(1): 138-145
108. Majerus M, Amos W, Hurst G (1996) Evolution: the four billion year war. Longman, Harlow, UK
109. Martin SJ, Beekman M, Wossler TC, Ratnieks FLW (2002) Parasitic Cape honeybee workers, Apis mellifera capensis, evade policing. Nature 415:163-165
110. Maynard Smith J (1964) Group selection and kin selection. Nature 201:1145-1146
111. Maynard Smith J, Szathmáry E (1995) The major transitions in evolution. WH Freeman, Oxford
112. Mayr E (1997a) The objects of selection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:2091-2094
113. Mayr E (1997b) This is biology. Belknap, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
114. Mehdiabadi N, Reeve HK, Mueller UG (2003) Queens versus workers: sex-ratio conflict in eusocial Hymenoptera. Trends Ecol Evol 18:88-93
115. Mercot H, Atlan A, Jacques M, Montehamp-Moreau C (1995) Sex-ratio distortion in Drosophila simulans: co-occurrence of a meiotic drive and a suppressor of drive. J Evol Biol 8:283-300
116. Michod RE (1999) Individuality, immortality, and sex. In: Keller L (ed) Levels of selection in evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., pp 53-74
117. Michod RE, Roze D (1997) Transitions in individuality. Proc R Soc Lond B 264:853-857
118. Miranda JT, Vinson SB (1981) Division of labor and specification of castes in the red imported fire ant Solenopsis invicta. Anim Behav 29:410-420
119. Monnin T, Ratnieks FLW (2001) Policing in queenless ponerine ants. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 50:97-108
120. Moritz RFA, Southwick EE (1992) Bees as superorganisms: an evolutionary reality. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York
121. Mueller UG (1991) Haplodiploidy and the evolution of facultative sex ratios in a primitively eusocial bee. Science 254:442-444
122. Murakami T, Higashi S, Windsor D (2000) Mating frequency, colony size, polyethism and sex ratio in fungus-growing ants (Attini). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 48:276-284
123. Neumann P, Moritz RFA (2000) Testing genetic variance hypotheses for the evolution of polyandry in the honeybee (Apis melllfera L.). Insectes Soc 41:271-279
124. Neumann P, Radloff SE, Moritz RFA, Hepburn HR, Reece SL (2001) Social parasitism by honeybee workers (Apis mellifera capensis Escholtz): host finding and resistance of hybrid host colonies. Behav Ecol 12:419-428
125. Noirot C, Darlington JPEC (2000) Termite nests: architecture, regulation and defence. In: Abe T, Bignell DE, Higashi M (eds) Termites: evolution, sociality, symbioses, ecology. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp 121-140
126. Nonacs P (1986) Sex-ratio determination within colonies of ants. Evolution 40:199-204
127. Nunney L (1999) Lineage selection: natural selection for long-term benefit. In: Keller L (ed) Levels of selection in evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., pp 238-252
128. Oldroyd BP (2002) The Cape honeybee: an example of a social cancer. Trends Ecol Evol 17:249-251
129. Oster GF, Wilson EO (1978) Caste and ecology of social insects. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
130. Page RE, Robinson GE, Fondrk MK (1989) Genetic specialists, kin recognition and nepotism in honey-bee colonies. Nature 338:576-579
131. Page RE, Robinson GE, Fondrk MK, Nasr ME (1995) Effects of worker genotypic diversity on honey bee colony development and behavior (Apis mellifera L.). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 36:387-396
132. Palmer KA, Oldroyd BP (2000) Evolution of multiple mating in the genus Apis. Apidologie 31:235-248
133. Peeters C (1991) The occurrence of sexual production among ant workers. Biol J Linn Soc 44:141-152
134. Peeters C, Higashi S (1989) Reproductive dominance controlled by mutilation in the queenless ant Diacamma australe. Naturwissenschaften 76:177-180
135. Peters JM, Queller DC, Imperatriz-Fonseca VL, Roubik DW, Strassmann JE (1999) Mate number, kin selection and social conflicts in stingless bees and honeybees. Proc R Soc Lond B 266:379-384
136. Pirk CWW, Neumann P, Ratnieks FLW (2003) Cape honeybees, Apis mellifera capensis, police worker-laid eggs despite the absence of relatedness benefits. Behav Ecol 14:347-352
137. Pomiankowski A (1999) Intragenomic conflict. In: Keller L (ed) Levels of selection in evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., pp 121-152
138. Price GR (1970) Selection and covariance. Nature 277:520-421
139. Price GR (1972) Extension of covariance selection mathematics. Ann Hum Genet 35:485-490
140. Queller DC (1989) The evolution of eusociality: reproductive head starts of workers. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86:3224-3226
141. Queller DC (1992) Quantitative genetics, inclusive fitness, and group selection. Am Nat 139:540-558
142. Queller DC (1994) Extended parental care and the origin of eusociality. Proc R Soc London B 256:105-111
143. Queller DC (2000) Pax Argentinica. Nature 405:519-520
144. Queller DC, Strassmann JE (1998) Kin selection and social insects. BioScience 48:165-178
145. Queller DC, Strassmann JE, Hughes C (1993) Microsalelliles and kinship. Trends Ecol Evol 8:285-288
146. Ratnieks FLW (1988) Reproductive harmony via mutual policing by workers in eusocial Hymenoptera. Am Nat 132:217-236
147. Ratnieks FLW (1993) Egg laying, egg removal, and ovary development by workers in queenright honey bee colonies. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 32:191-198
148. Ratnieks FLW, Reeve HK (1992) Conflict in single-queen Hymenopteran societies: the structure of conflict and processes that reduce conflict in advanced eusocial species. J Theor Biol 158:33-65
149. Ratnieks FLW, Visscher PK (1989) Worker policing in the honeybee. Nature 342:796-797
150. Reeve HK (1998) Game theory, reproductive skew, and nepotism. In: Dugatkin LA, Reeve HK (eds) Theory and animal behaviour. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 118-145
151. Reeve HK, Keller L (1999) Levels of selection: burying the units-of-selection debate and unearthing the crucial new issues. In: Keller L (ed) Levels of selection in evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., pp 3-14
152. Reeve HK, Westneat DF, Noon WA, Sherman PW, Aquadro CF (1990) DNA "fingerprinting" reveals high levels of inbreeding in colonies of the eusocial naked mole-rat. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87:2496-2500
153. Reeve HK, Starks PT, Peters JM, Nonacs P (2000) Genetic support for the evolutionary theory of reproductive transactions in social wasps. Proc R Soc Lond B 267:75-79
154. Robinson GE (1992) Regulation of division of labor in insect colonies. Annu Rev Entomol 37:637-655
155. Robinson GE, Page RE Jr (1989) Genetic determination of nectar foraging, pollen foraging, and nest-site scouting by honey bee colonies. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 24:317-323
156. Rosenheim JA, Nonacs P, Mangel M (1996) Sex ratios and multifaceted parental investment. Am Nat 148:501-535
157. Sanetra M, Crozier RH (2001) Polyandry and colony genetic structure in the primitive ant Nothomyrmecia macrops. J Evol Biol 14:368-378
158. Seeley TD (1989) The honey bee colony as a superorganism. Am Sci 77:546-553
159. Seeley TD (1995) The wisdom of the hive. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
160. Seeley TD (1997) Honey bee colonies are group-level adaptive units. Am Nat 150:S22-S41
161. Sherman PW, Seeley TD, Reeve HK (1988) Parasites, pathogens, and polyandry in social Hymenoptera. Am Nat 131:602-610
162. Sober E, Wilson DS (2002) Perspectives and parameterizations: Commentary on Benjamin Kerr and Peter Godfrey-Smith's "Individualist and multi-level perspectives on selection in structured populations". Biol Philos 17:529-537
163. Solomon NG, French JA (1997) Cooperative breeding in mammals. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
164. Sundström L (1994) Sex ratio bias, relatedness asymmetry and queen mating frequency in ants. Nature 367:266-268
165. Sundström L, Chapuisat M, Keller L (1996) Conditional manipulation of sex ratios by ant workers: a test of kin selection theory. Science 274:993-995
166. Tarpy DR (2003) Genetic diversity within honeybee colonies prevents severe infections and promotes colony growth. Proc R Soc Lond B 270:99-103
167. Thomas ML, Elgar MA (2003) Colony size affects division of labour in the ponerine ant Rhytidoponera metallica. Naturwissenschaften 90:88-92
168. Tóth E, Queller DC, Imperatriz-Fonseca VL, Strassmann JE (2002a) Genetic and behavioral conflict over male production between workers and queens in the stingless bee Paratrigona subnuda. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 53:1-8
169. Tóth E, Strassmann JE, Nogueira-Neto P, Imperatriz-Fonseca VL, Queller DC (2002b) Male production in stingless bees: variable outcomes of queen-worker conflict. Mol Ecol 11:2261-2267
170. Tóth E, Strassmann JE, Imperatriz-Fonseca VL, Queller DC (2003) Queens, not workers, produce the males in the stingless bee Schwarziana quadripunctata quadripunctata. Anim Behav 66: 359-368
171. Trivers RL, Hare H (1976) Haplodiploidy and the evolution of the social insects. Science 191:249-263
172. Tsutsui ND, Suarez AV, Grosberg RK (2003) Genetic diversity, asymmetrical aggression, and recognition in a widespread invasive species. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:1078-1083
173. Uetz GW (2001) Understanding the evolution of social behavior in colonial web-building spiders. In: Dugatkin LA (Ed) Model systems in behavioral ecology. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., pp 110-132
174. Villesen P, Gertsch PJ, Frydenberg J, Mueller UG, Boomsma JJ (1999) Evolutionary transition from single to multiple mating in fungus-growing ants. Mol Ecol 8:1819-1825
175. Villesen P, Murakami T, Schultz TR, Boomsma JJ (2002) Identifying the transition between single and multiple mating of queens in fungus-growing ants. Proc R Soc Lond B 269:1541-1548
176. Visscher PK (1996) Reproductive conflict in honey bees: a stalemate of worker egg-laying and policing. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 39:237-244
177. Wade MJ (1978) Kin selection: a classical approach and a general solution. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 75:6154-6158
178. Wade MJ (1979) The evolution of social interactions by family selection. Am Nat 113:399-417
179. Wade MJ (1980a) Kin selection: its components. Science 210:665-667
180. Wade MJ (1980b) An experimental study of kin selection. Evolution 34:844-855
181. Wade MJ (1982) The effect of multiple inseminations on the evolution of social behavior in diploid and haplodiploid organisms. J Theor Biol 95:351-368
182. Wade MJ (1985) Soft selection, hard selection, kin selection, and group selection. Am Nat 125:61-73
183. Wattanachaiyingcharoen W, Oldroyd BP, Wongsiri S, Palmer K, Paar J (2003) A scientific note on the mating frequency of Apis dorsata Fabricius. Apidologie 34:85-86
184. Wcislo WT, Danforth BN (1997) Secondarily solitary: the evolutionary loss of social behavior. Trends Ecol Evol 12:468-474
185. Wenzel JW (1991) Evolution of nest architecture. In: Ross KG (ed) The social biology of wasps. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, N.Y., pp 480-519
186. West-Eberhard MJ (1975) The evolution of social behavior by kin selection. Q Rev Biol 50:1-33
187. Williams GC (1966) Adaptation and natural selection: a critique of some current evolutionary thoughts. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
188. Wilson DS (1997a) Introduction: multilevel selection theory comes of age. Am Nat 150:S1-S4
189. Wilson DS (1997b) Altruism and organism: disentangling the themes of multilevel selection theory. Am Nat 150:S122-S134
190. Wilson EO (1971) The insect societies. Belknap, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
191. Woyciechowski M, Warakomska Z (1994) Workers' genetic diversity has no relation to pollen diversity in a honey bee colony (Apis mellifera L.). J Ethol 12:163-167
192. Woyciechowski M, Król R, Figurny E, Stachowicz M, Tracz M (1994) Genetic diversity of workers and infection by the parasite Nosema apis in honey bee colonies (Apis mellifera L). In: Lenoir A, Arnold G, Lepage M (eds) Les insectes sociaux. Université Paris Nord, Paris, p 347
193. Wynne-Edwards VC (1962) Animal dispersion in relation to social behavior. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh
194. Yasui Y (1998) The 'genetic benefits" of female multiple mating revisited. Trends Ecol Evol 13:246-250