When national territory is home to the global: Old borders to novel borderings

New Political Economy

Volumn 10, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 523-541

  Sassen, Saskia ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

NATIONALISM; POLITICAL ECONOMY; TERRITORIAL DELIMITATION;

EID: 31344469656     PISSN: 13563467     EISSN: 14699923     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13563460500344476     Document Type: Article

References (130)

1. For a summary and attempted synthesis of these viewpoints, see John M. Hobson & M. Ramesh, 'Globalisation Makes of States What States Make of It: Between Agency and Structure in the State/Globalisation Debate', New Political Economy, Vol. 7, No. 1 (2002), pp. 5-22.
2. For example, Peter Taylor, 'World Cities and Territorial States under Conditions of Contemporary Globalisation (1999 Annual Political Geography Lecture)', Political Geography, Vol. 19, No. 1 (2000), pp. 5-32;
3. Robert Jessop, 'Reflections on globalization and its illogics', in: Kris Olds et al. (eds), Globalization and the Asian Pacific: Contested Territories (Routledge, 1999), pp. 19-38;
4. Ulrich Beck, What is Globalization? (Polity, 2000);
5. and Neil Brenner, State Spaces (Oxford University Press, 2003).
6. For a series of articles with examples of varying theses, see New Political Economy, Vol. 5, No. 3 (2000).
7. For a typical example, see Isidro Morales, 'Mexico's Post-NAFTA Privatisation Policies: The Case of the Petrochemical Sector', New PoIiticaI Economy, Vol. 2, No. 3 (1997), pp. 427-51.
8. For example, Linda Weiss, 'The State-augmenting Effects of Globalisation', New Political Economy, Vol. 10, No. 3 (2005), pp. 345-53.
9. Saskia Sassen, Losing Control? Sovereignty in an Age of Globalization, The 1995 Columbia University Leonard Hastings Schoff Memorial Lectures (Columbia University Press, 1996), chs 1 and 2;
10. Saskia Sassen, Territory, Authority, Rights: From Medieval to Global Assemblages (Princeton University Press, forthcoming 2006).
11. See also Sassen, Territory, Authority, Rights.
12. For an example, see Martin Lodge & Lindsay Stirton, 'Regulatory Reform in Small Developing States: Globalisation, Regulatory Autonomy and Jamaican Telecommunications', New Political Economy, Vol. 7, No. 3 (2002), pp. 415-22.
13. For example, Stephen Krasner, 'Globalisation and the state', in: Paul Edwards & Keith Sisson (eds), Contemporary Debates in International Relations (Ohio University Press, 2004), pp. 60-82;
14. Louis Pauly, 'Global finance, political authority, and the problem of legitimation,' in: Thomas J. Biersteker & Rodney Bruce Hall (eds), The Emergence of Private Authority and Global Governance (Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp. 67-90;
15. Eric Helleiner, 'Sovereignty, territoriality and the globalisation of finance', in: David Smith, D. Solinger & S. Topik (eds), States and Sovereignty in the Global Economy (Routledge, 1999), pp. 158-67;
16. Paul Hirst & Grahame Thompson, Globalization in Question: The International Economy and the Possibilities of Governance (Polity, 1996);
17. Christian Joppke (ed.), Challenge to the Nation-State (Oxford University Press, 1998).
18. For example, Philip G. Cerny, The Changing Architecture of Politics (Sage, 1990);
19. Philip G. Cerny, 'Structuring the political arena: Public goods, states and governance in a globalizing world', in: Ronen Palan (ed.), Global Political Economy: Contemporary Theories (Routledge, 2000), pp. 21-35;
20. Susan Strange, The Retreat of the State: The Diffusion of Power in the World Economy (Cambridge University Press, 1996);
21. Claire A. Cutler, Virginia Haufler & Tony Porter (eds), Private Authority in International Affairs (SUNY Press, 1999);
22. Yale H. Ferguson & R. J. Barry Jones (eds), Political Space: Frontiers of Change and Governance in a Globalising World (SUNY Press, 2002);
23. Ken Dark, 'The informational reconfiguring of global geopolitics', in: Ferguson & Jones, Political Space, pp. 61-86;
24. and Ronen Palan, 'Offshore and the institutional environment of globalization', in: Ferguson & Jones, Political Space, pp. 211-24.
25. For what is probably the most comprehensive mapping of the main strands in the scholarship on globalisation and the state, see David Held, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt & Jonathan Perraton, Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture (Polity, 1999), who categorise the two major emerging strands as 'hyperglobalists', who posit that national states are becoming weak and are on their way out, and 'transformationists', who contend that globalisation has brought about significant changes in state authority and the work of states.
26. Beyond issues pertaining to the global economy, the question of state participation is also at the heart of a far broader debate about globalisation and the state. There is an older scholarship on world-order systems, such as Richard Falk, Explorations at the Edge of Time: The Prospects for World Order (Temple University Press, 1992),
27. and 'The making of global citizenship', in: J. Brecher & T. Costello (eds), Global Visions: Beyond the New World Order (South End Press, 1993),
28. recently invigorated by debates about cosmopolitanism (see David Held, Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance (Stanford University Press, 1995);
29. and Held et al., Global Transformations). It examines and theorises the possibilities of transcending nationally oriented state authority and instituting world-level institutional orders.
30. This literature often includes partial world-level orders such as the international human rights regime (see Alison Brysk (ed.), Globalization and Human Rights (University of Berkeley Press, 2002)),
31. or certain features of international environmental treaties (see Ronnie Lipschutz & Judith Meyer, Global Civil Society and Global Environmental Governance: The Politics of Nature from Place to Planet (SUNY Press, 1996)),
32. and, quite prominently, discussions about the possibility of a global civil society (see Held et al., Global Transformations;
33. and A. Annheur, M. Glasius & M. Kaldor (eds), Global Civil Society Yearbook 2002 (Oxford University Press, 2002)).
34. See also note 19 below.
35. A growing literature that often overlaps with particular parts of the above cited strands in the scholarship emphasises the relocation of national public government functions to private actors both within national and transnational domains (see Cutler et al., Private Authority in International Affairs;
36. and Alfred C. Aman Jr, 'The Globalising State: A Future-Oriented Perspective on the Public/Private Distinction, Federalism, and Democracy', Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, Vol. 31, No. 4 (1998), pp. 769-870).
37. For a state of the art elaboration on the rise of private authority, see generally Thomas J. Biersteker, Rodney Bruce Hall & Craig N. Murphy (eds), Private Authority and Global Governance (Cambridge University Press, 2000).
38. For the emergence of crossborder governance mechanisms, see generally Ferguson & Jones, Political Space.
39. Sassen, Territory, Authority, Rights, ch. 4.
40. A good examination of these issues as they materialise in specific institutional settings can be found in Aman, 'The Globalising State'. An excellent collection of essays that seeks to capture these types of dynamics can be found in Michael Likosky (ed.), Transnational Legal Processes (Butterworth's LexisNexis Group, 2002).
41. Sassen, Territory, Authority, Rights, chs 4 and 5.
42. Perhaps the best known, though not necessarily the most precise, authors here are Kenichi Ohmae, The End of the Nation-State: The Rise of Regional Economies (Free Press, 1995);
43. Walter B. Wriston, The Twilight of Sovereignty: How the Information Revolution is Transforming Our World (Scribner 1992);
44. Stephen J. Kobrin, 'The MAI and the Clash of Globalizations', Foreign Policy, No. 112 (1998), pp. 97-109;
45. and Benjamin J. Cohen, 'Electronic Money: New Day or False Dawn?', Review of lnternational Political Economy, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2001), pp. 197-225.
46. There is today a growing literature that interprets deregulation and privatisation as the incorporation by the state of its own shrinking role; in its most formalised version this position emphasises the state's constitutionalising of its own diminished role. See Kevin R. Cox (ed.), Spaces of Globalization: Reasserting the Power of the Local (Guilford, 1997);
47. Leo Panitch, 'Rethinking the role of the state in an era of globalization', in: James H. Mittelman (ed.), Globalization: Critical Reflections (Lynne Rienner, 1996), pp. 83-116;
48. James H. Mittelman, The Globalization Syndrome: Transformation and Resistance (Princeton University Press, 2000);
49. Stephen Gill, 'Globalization, democratization, and the politics of indifference', in: Mittelman, Globalization, pp. 205-28.
50. Perhaps the best example is Helleiner, 'Sovereignty, territoriality and the globalisation of finance', who examines the regulatory changes brought on by the emergence of global financial systems and shows how states remain as key actors.
51. See also note 12 above.
52. A good source in this regard is Edward D. Mansfield & Richard Sisson, The Evolution of Political Knowledge (Ohio State University Press 2003); which contains papers by major scholars in international relations addressing key issues about the state and the current features of the interstate system, with responses by critics from other disciplines.
53. For a development of some of these issues, see Saskia Sassen, 'Territory and Territoriality in the Global Economy', International Sociology, Vol. 15, No. 2 (2000), pp. 372-93.
54. In this context, I find interesting parallels in a specific type of legal scholarship focused on the construction of jurisdictions and the location of particular issues in jurisdictions that may today be less and less adequate. See, for instance, George A. Bermann, 'International regulatory cooperation and US federalism', in: G. A. Bermann, M. Herdegen & P.L. Lindseth (eds), Transatlantic Regulatory Cooperation: Legal Problems and Political Prospects (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 373-84;
55. see also the extraordinary analysis in Judith Resnik, 'Categorical Federalism: Jurisdiction, Gender, and the Globe', The Yale Law Journal, Vol. 111, No. 3 (2001), pp. 619-80.
56. However, these dynamics can also be present when privatisation and deregulation concern native firms and investors - pace the fact that, in much of the world, privatisation and deregulation have been constituted through the entry of foreign investors and firms.
57. Several scholars have focused on the nature of this engagement: See Strange, The Retreat of the State
58. Cerny, 'Structuring the political arena';
59. Dark, 'The informational reconfiguring'
60. Jan Aart Scholte, 'Global Capitalism and the State', International Affairs, Vol. 73, No. 3 (1997), pp. 427-52;
61. Leo Panitch & Colin Leys (eds), Global Capitalism Versus Democracy (Merlin Press & Monthly Review Press, 1999);
62. Paul N. Doremus, William W. Keller, Louis W. Pauly & Simon Reich, The Myth of the Global Corporation (Princeton University Press, 1999);
63. Boris Kagarlitsky, 'The challenge for the left: Reclaiming the state', in: Panitch & Leys, Global Capitalism Versus Democracy, pp. 294-313.
64. One way of organising the major issues is to ask whether the role of the state is simply one of reducing its authority - for example, as suggested with terms such as deregulation and privatisation, and generally 'less government' - or whether it also requires the production of new types of regulations, legislative items, court decisions; in brief, the production of a whole series of new 'legalities'. I use this term to distinguish this production from 'law' or 'jurisprudence'. See Sassen, Losing Control?, ch. 1.
65. Among the issues raised by this type of analysis are the increased autonomy and influence of a whole variety of types of processes and actors, including non-state actors. The literature on non-governmental organisations, including transnational ones, and the associated forms of activism, has also generated a series of interesting insights into the changed position of states in a context of multiple globalisation. See, for example, Margaret Keck & Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Cornell University Press, 1998);
66. Robert O'Brien, Anne Marie Goetz, Jan Aart Scholte & Marc Williams, Contesting Global Governance: Multilateral Economic Institutions and Global Social Movements (Cambridge University Press, 2000);
67. David Bollier, 'Reinventing Democratic Culture in the Age of Electronic Networks', available at http://www.netaction.org/bollier.
68. For a critical account that partly rejects the notion that these non-state actors actually represent a politics that undermines existing forms of authority, including that of the state, see André Drainville, 'Left internationalism and the politics of resistance in the New World Order', in: David A. Smith & Josef Borocs (eds), A New World Order: Global Transformation in the Late Twentieth Century (Greenwood Press, 1995), pp. 217-38.
69. I would also include here a variety of emergent global networks that are fighting equally emergent global agents such as trafficking gangs. See Global Survival Network, 'Crime and Servitude: An Exposé of the Traffic in Women for Prostitution from the Newly Independent States', available at http://www.witness.org/;
70. and Coalition to Abolish Slavery and Trafficking, 'Resources: Factsheet', available at http://www.castla.org/news/resources.htm.
71. For a general review of these types of organisations, see Sassen, 'Territory in the Global Economy'. Along these lines a new set of concrete instances has come about with the 11 September 2001 attack on the World Trade Center, that is, the use by international organised terrorism of the global financial system and the international immigration regime.
72. See, for a variety of analyses, Craig J. Calhoun, Paul Price & Ashley S. Timmer, Understanding September 11 (New Press 2002);
73. Saskia Sassen, 'Spatialities and Temporalities of the Global', Public Culture (Millennium Issue on Globalization), Vol. 12, No. 1 (2000), pp. 215-32.
74. Seen from the perspective of firms and investors operating transnationally, the objective is to enjoy the protections traditionally exercised by the state in the national realm of the economy for national firms, notably guaranteeing property rights and contracts. How this gets done may involve a range of options. See Cutler et al., Private Authority in International Affairs;
75. and Biersteker & Hall, The Emergence of Private Authority and Global Governance.
76. Two very different bodies of scholarship which develop lines of analysis that can help in capturing some of these conditions are represented by the work of James Rosenau, particularly his examination of the domestic 'frontier' inside the national state (James N. Roseneau, Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier: Exploring Governance in a Troubled World (Cambridge University Press, 1997)),
77. and by the work of R. B. J. Walker problematising the distinction inside/ outside in international relations theory (R. B. J. Walker, Inside/ Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge University Press, 1993)).
78. An interesting variant on this subject is Thomas Callaghy, Ronald Kassimir & Robert Latham (eds), Intervention and Transnationalism in Africa: Global-Local Networks of Power (Cambridge University Press, 200l), who examine the proliferation of global non-state-centred networks in the case of Africa.
79. See Beth Stephens, 'Corporate Liability: Enforcing Human Rights Through Domestic Litigation', Hastings International & Comparative Law Review, Vol. 24, No. 3 (2002), pp. 401-15.
80. We can see this in particular features of a variety of domains; for instance, competition policy (Edward O. Graham & J. D. Richardson, Global Competition Policy (Institute for International Economics, 1997)),
81. Brian Portnoy, Constructing Competition: The Political Foundations of Alliance Capitalism, unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, 2000));
82. specific aspects of international business collaboration (John Dunning, Alliance Capitalism and Global Business (Routledge, 1997);
83. Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, Symposium: The Internet and the Sovereign State: The Role and Impact of Cyberspace on National and Global Governance, Vol. 5, No. 2 (1998));
84. in networks among members of the judiciary (Anne-Marie Slaughter, A New World Order (Princeton University Press, 2004));
85. and, in a very different domain, the new opening among the top leadership in a growing number of unions to organising immigrants (Leah Haus, Unions, Immigration, and Internationalization: New Challenges and Changing Conditions in the United States and France (Palgrave, 2002)).
86. For example, Shaun Breslin, 'Decentralisation, Globalisation and China's Partial Re-engagement with the Global Economy', New Political Economy, Vol. 5, No. 2 (2000), pp. 205-26.
87. For more on states and global markets, see the collection of articles in New Political Economy, Vol. 8, No. 1 (2003).
88. For example, Taylor, 'World Cities and Territorial States';
89. Erik Swyngedouw, 'Neither global nor local: "globalization", and the politics of scale', in: Cox, Spaces of Globalization, pp. 137-66;
90. Ash Amin & Nigel Thrift, Globalization, Institutions and Regional Development in Europe (Oxford University Press, 1994);
91. M. Peter Smith & Luis E. Guarnizo, Transnationalism from Below (Transaction, 1998);
92. Sanjeev Khagram, Dams and Development: Transnational Struggles for Water and Power (Cornell University Press, 2004);
93. Robert C. Smith, Mexican New York: Transnational Lives of New Immigrants (University of California Press, 2005).
94. For example, Doreen Massey, 'Politics and space/time', in: M. Keith & S. Pile (eds), Place and the Politics of Identity (Routledge, 1993, pp. 141-61;
95. Richard Howitt, 'A World in a Grain of Sand: Towards a Reconceptualisation of Geographical Scale', Australian Geographer, Vol. 24, No. 1 (1993), pp. 33-44;
96. Andrew Jonas, 'The Scale Politics of Spatiality', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, Vol. 12, No. 3 (1994), pp. 257-64.
97. Elsewhere I examine the emergence of forms of globality centred on localised struggles and actors that are part of crossborder networks; this is a form of global politics that runs not through global institutions but through local ones. See Saskia Sassen, 'Electronic markets and activist networks: The weight of social logics in digital formations', in: Robert Latham & Saskia Sassen (eds), Digital Formations: IT and New Architectures in the Global Realm (Princeton University Press, 2005).
98. For a full development of this thesis, see Sassen, Losing Control?, chs 4 and 5.
99. For instance, at least some of the circuits connecting São Paulo to global dynamics are different from those of Frankfurt, Johannesburg or Bombay. Further, distinct sets of overlapping circuits contribute to the constitution of distinctly structured crossborder geographies. We are, for instance, seeing the intensifying of older hegemonic geographies, such as the increase in transactions among New York, Miami, Mexico City and São Paulo. See, for example, Sueli Schiffer Ramos, 'São Paulo: articulating a cross-border regional economy', in: Saskia Sassen (ed.), Global Networks/Linked Cities (Routledge, 2002), pp. 209-36;
100. Christoff Parnreiter, 'The making of a global city: Mexico City', in: Sassen, Global Network/Linked Cities, pp. 145-82, as well as newly constituted geographies, such as the articulation of Shanghai with a rapidly growing number of crossborder circuits.
101. See Felicity Rose Gu & Zilia Tang, 'Shanghai: Reconnecting to the global economy', in: Sassen, Global Networks/Linked Cities, pp. 273-308.
102. For a critical examination along these lines, see Benedicte Bull & Morten Boas, 'Multilateral Development Banks as Regionalising Actors: The Asian Development Bank and the Inter-American Development Bank', New Political Economy, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2003), pp. 245-61.
103. In my early research on the global city I began to understand some of these questions of reified scales. Much of the literature on global and world cities has a critical appraisal of questions of scaling, but with important exceptions (Peter J. Taylor, 'World cities and territorial states: The rise and fall of their mutuality', in: P. J. Taylor & P. L. Knox (eds), World Cities in a World-System (Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 48-62;
104. Neil Brenner, 'Global Cities, Global States: Global City Formation and State Territorial Restructuring in Contemporary Europe', Review of International Political Economy, Vol. 5, No. 2 (1998), pp. 1-37), this appraisal tends to be in embryo, undertheorised and not quite explicated.
105. On the other hand, the scholarship on 'glocalisation' recognises and theorises questions of scale but often remains attached to a notion of nested scalings (for example, Swyngedouw, 'Neither global nor local'). I find that among the literatures in geography that come closest in their conceptualisation, albeit focused on very different issues, to what I develop in this article are those on first-nation peoples' rights claiming. See Howitt, 'A World in a Grain of Sand';
106. Steven E. Silvern, 'Scales of Justice: Law, American Indian Treaty Rights and Political Construction of Scale', Political Geography, No. 18 (1999), pp. 639-68;
107. Claudia Notzke, 'A New Perspective in Aboriginal Nature Resource Management: Co-Management', Geoforum, Vol. 26, No. 2 (1995), pp. 187-209.
108. Clearly, there is a particularly illuminating positioning of the issues in this case because from the outset there is: A) the coexistence of two exclusive claims over a single territory; and b) the endogeneity of both types of claims - that of the modern sovereign and that of the indigenous nation. In my case here in this article, it is the coexistence of the claim of the historical sovereign and the claim of the global as endogenised in the reconstituted sovereign. For a full development of this somewhat abstract statement, see Sassen, Territory, Authority, Rights.
109. For example, Taylor, 'World Cities and Territorial States';
110. and Beck, What is Globalization?.
111. Xiangming Chen, As Borders Bend: Transnational Spaces on the Pacific Rim (Rowman & Littlefield, 2005).
112. For example, Paul Williams & Ian Taylor, 'Neoliberalism and the Political Economy of the "New" South Africa', New Political Economy, Vol. 5, No. 1 (2000), pp. 21-41.
113. Sassen, Losing Control?, ch. 3;
114. and Saskia Sassen, Globalization and its Discontents (New Press, 1998), ch. 4. Finally, and I cannot resist, we might want to say that a spent, used-up, sparsely populated area - for instance, a completely logged forest, where the forest ceases to exist - represents an instance of 'dead land' on what may well continue to be very dynamic global circuits, such as the logging multinationals now operating in other sites, in the same or other countries. The point here is that one of the key articulations of that site remains that global logging circuit, and to keep a dead site on the circuits that caused its death is part of a critical social science. Why render it invisible?
115. For a fuller development, see Sassen, Territory, Authority, Rights, ch. 5.
116. For example, see Martin Shapiro, 'The Globalization of Law', Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, No. 1 (1993), pp. 37-64.
117. Shapiro in ibid. notes that there is not much of a regime of international law, either through the establishment of a single global lawgiver and enforcer or through a nation-state consensus. He also posits that, if there was, we would be dealing with an international rather than a global law. Nor is it certain that law has become universal - that is, that human relations anywhere in the world will be governed by some law, even if not by a law that is the same everywhere. Globalisation of law refers to a very limited, specialised set of legal phenomena, and Shapiro argues that it will almost always refer to North America and Europe, only sometimes to Japan and to some other Asian countries. There have been a few particular common developments and many particular parallel developments in law across the world. Thus, as a concomitant of the globalisation of markets and the organisation of transnational corporations, there has been a move towards a relatively uniform global contract and commercial law. This can be seen as a private law-making system where the two or more parties create a set of rules to govern their future relations. Such a system of private law-making can exist transnationally even when there is no transnational court.
118. Yves Dezalay & Garth Bryant, Dealing in Virtue: International Commercial Arbitration and the Construction of a Transnational Legal Order (University of Chicago Press, 1996).
119. David Charny, 'Competition among Jurisdictions in Formulating Corporate Law Rules: An American Perspective on the "Race to the Bottom" in the European Communities', Harvard International Law Journal, Vol. 32, No. 2 (1991), pp. 423-56;
120. Joel Trachtman, 'International Regulatory Competition, Externalization, and Juridiction'
121. Harvard International Law Journal, Vol. 34, No. 1 (1993), pp. 47-104.
122. There are two other categories that may partly overlap with internationalisation as Americanisation, but are important to distinguish, at least analytically. One is multilateralism and the other is what John Ruggie has called multiperspectival institutions. See J. G. Ruggie, Constructing the World Polity (Routledge, 2000).
123. For example, Gunther Teubner, 'Societal constitutionalism: Alternatives to state-centered constitutional theory', in: Christian Joerges, Inger-Johanne Sand & Gunther Teubner (eds), Transnational Governance and Constitutionalism (Hartford Publishing, 2004), pp. 3-29.
124. The Project on 'International Courts and Tribunals' (PICT) was founded in 1997 by the Center on International Cooperation (CIC), New York University, and the Foundation for International Environmental Law and Development (FIELD). From 2002 onwards, PICT has been a common project of the CIC and the Centre for International Courts and Tribunals, University College London. See http://www.pict-pcti.org
125. For example, see Roger P. Alford, 'The American Influence on International Arbitration', Ohio State Journal on Dispute Resolution, Vol. 19, No. 1 (2003), pp. 69-88.
126. PICT (Notation 4) has gathered good documentation on legal frameworks and explicatory literature; see, further, Diana Shelton, Remedies in International Human Rights Law (Oxford University Press, 1999);
127. on 'hybrid courts', see Laura Dickinson, 'The Promise of Hybrid Courts', American Journal of International Law, Vol. 97, No. 2 (2003), pp. 295ff.
128. Teubner, 'Societal constitutionalism'.
129. Ibid.
130. See Dirk Lehmkuhl, 'The Resolution of Domain Names vs. Trademark Conflicts: A Case Study on Regulation Beyond the Nation-State and Related Problems', Zeitschrift Für Rechtssoziolgie, Vol. 23, No. 1 (2003), pp. 61-78.