Effects on the fetus and newborn of maternal analgesia and anesthesia: A review

Canadian Journal of Anesthesia

Volumn 51, Issue 6, 2004, Pages 586-609

  Littleford, Judith ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA   (Canada)

^b HEALTH SCIENCES CENTRE   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANALGESIC AGENT; BETA 2 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; BUPIVACAINE; BUPRENORPHINE; BUTORPHANOL; CARBON DIOXIDE; DIAMORPHINE; FENTANYL; FREE RADICAL; GLYCERYL TRINITRATE; LOCAL ANESTHETIC AGENT; MORPHINE; NALBUPHINE; NALOXONE; NARCOTIC ANALGESIC AGENT; NITROUS OXIDE; NORPETHIDINE; OPIATE; OPIATE AGONIST; OPIATE ANTAGONIST; OXYGEN; PETHIDINE; PLACEBO; PROMETHAZINE; REMIFENTANIL; SODIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; SODIUM CHLORIDE; SUFENTANIL; TERBUTALINE; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ACIDEMIA; BLOOD PLACENTA BARRIER; BREAST MILK; CESAREAN SECTION; CLINICAL TRIAL; COCHRANE LIBRARY; DELIVERY; DEPRESSION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG PENETRATION; DRUG PROTEIN BINDING; DRUG TISSUE LEVEL; EMBASE; FETUS HYPOXIA; FETUS SURGERY; HUMAN; HYPOTENSION; INFORMATION PROCESSING; INFORMATION RETRIEVAL; LABOR; LABOR PAIN; LANGUAGE; MATERNAL DISEASE; MEDICAL LITERATURE; MEDLINE; MUSCLE HYPERTONIA; NEWBORN DISEASE; NEWBORN SCREENING; OBSTETRIC ANESTHESIA; ONLINE SYSTEM; OUTCOMES RESEARCH; OXIDATIVE STRESS; OXYGENATION; PARACERVICAL BLOCK; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL DRUG EXPOSURE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUERPERIUM; RESUSCITATION; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE; WELLBEING;

EID: 3042822484     PISSN: 0832610X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/BF03018403     Document Type: Review

References (158)

1. Caton D. The history of obstetric anesthesia. In: Chestnut DH (Ed.). Obstetric Anesthesia, Principles and Practice, 2nd ed. New York: Mosby; 1999: 1-13.
2. Apgar V. A proposal for a new method of evaluation of the newborn infant. Curr Res Anesth Analg 1953; 32: 260-7.
3. Papile L. The Apgar score in the 21st century (Editorial). N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 519-20.
4. Thorp JA, Rushing RS. Umbilical cord blood gas analysis. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 1999; 26: 695-709.
5. Helwig JT, Parer JT, Kilpatrick SJ, Laros RK Jr. Umbilical cord blood acid-base state: what is normal? Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 174: 1807-14.
6. Ross MG, Gala R. Use of umbilical artery base excess: algorithm for the timing of hypoxic injury. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 187: 1-9.
7. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards. Blood gas pre-analytical considerations: specimen collection, calibration and controls, approved guideline. NCCLS (Villanova PA) Document C27-A1993; 13: 1-45.
8. Yoon BH, Kim SW. The effect of labor on the normal values of umbilical blood acid-base status. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1994; 73: 555-61.
9. Reynolds F, Sharma SK, Seed PT. Analgesia in labour and fetal acid-base balance: a meta-analysis comparing epidural with systemic opioid analgesia. BJOG 2002; 109: 1344-53.
10. Als H, Tronick E, Lester BM, et al. The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (BNBAS). J Abnorm Child Psychol 1977; 5: 215-31.
11. Scanlon JW, Brown WU Jr, Weiss JB, Alper MH. Neurobehavioural responses of newborn infants after maternal epidural anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1974; 40: 121-8.
12. Amiel-Tison C, Barrier G, Shnider SM, Levinson G, Hughes SC, Stefani SJ. A new neurologic and adaptive capacity scoring system for evaluating obstetric medications in full-term newborns. Anesthesiology 1982; 56: 340-50.
13. Brockhurst NJ, Littleford JA, Halpern SH. The neurologic and adaptive capacity score. A systematic review of its use in obstetric anesthesia research. Anesthesiology 2000; 92: 237-46.
14. Halpern SH, Littleford JA, Brockhurst NJ, Youngs PJ, Malik N, Owen HC. The neurologic and adaptive capacity score is not a reliable method of newborn evaluation. Anesthesiology 2001; 94: 958-62.
15. Liston R, Crane J. Fetal health surveillance in labour, part 1. SOGC Clinical Practice Guidelines No. 112, March 2002. Available from: http://www.sogc.org/SOGCnet/sogc_docs/common/guide/ library_e.shtml#obstetrics (accessed May 6, 2003).
16. Liston R, Crane J. Fetal health surveillance in labour, part 2. SOGC Clinical Practice Guidelines No. 112, April 2002. Available from: http://www.sogc.org/SOGCnet/sogc_docs/common/guide/ library_e.shtml#obstetrics (accessed May 6, 2003).
17. Thacker SB, Stroup D, Chang M. Continuous electronic heart rate monitoring for fetal assessment during labor. (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 1, 2003. Oxford: Update Software (CD-ROM).
18. Dawes G, Meir YJ, Mandruzzato GP. Computerized evaluation of fetal heart rate patterns. J Perinat Med 1994; 22: 491-9.
19. Neilson JP, Mistry RT. Fetal electrocardiogram plus heart rate recording for fetal monitoring during labour. (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 1, 2003. Oxford: Update Software (CD-ROM).
20. Norén H, Ameer-Wåhlin I, Hagberg H, et al. Fetal electrocardiography in labor and neonatal outcome: data from the Swedish randomized controlled trial on intrapartum fetal monitoring. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003; 188: 183-92.
21. Solt I, Ganadry S, Weiner Z. The effect of meperidine and promethazine on fetal heart rate indices during the active phase of labor. Isr Med Assoc J 2002; 4: 178-80.
22. Hoffman III CT, Guzman ER, Richardson MJ, Vintzileos A, Houlihan C, Benito C. Effects of narcotic and non-narcotic continuous epidural anesthesia on intrapartum fetal heart rate tracings as measured by computer analysis. J Matern Fetal Med 1997; 6: 200-5.
23. St. Amant MS, Koffel BL, Malinow AM. The effects of epidural opioids on fetal heart rate variability when coadministered with 0.25% bupivacaine for labor analgesia. Am J Perinatol 1998; 15: 351-6.
24. Manning FA. Fetal biophysical profile: a critical appraisal. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2002; 45: 975-85.
25. Manning FA, Snijders R, Harman CR, Nicolaides K, Menticoglou S, Morrison I. Fetal biophysical profile score. VI. Correlation with antepartum umbilical venous fetal pH. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 169: 755-63.
26. Farrell T, Owen P, Harrold A. Fetal movements following intrapartum maternal opiate administration. Clin Exp Obst Gyn 1996; 23: 144-6.
27. Kopecky EA, Ryan ML, Barrett JF, et al. Fetal response to maternally administered morphine. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000; 183: 424-30.
28. Smith CV, Rayburn WF, Allen KV, Bane TM, Livezey GT. Influence of intravenous fentanyl on fetal biophysical parameters during labor. J Matern Fetal Med 1996; 5: 89-92.
29. Dildy GA. Fetal pulse oximetry: current issues. J Perinat Med 2001; 29: 5-13.
30. East CE, Colditz PB, Begg LM, Brennecke SP. Update on intrapartum fetal pulse oximetry. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2002; 42: 119-24.
31. Carbonne B, Langer B, Goffinet F, et al. Multicenter study on the clinical value of fetal pulse oximetry. II. Compared predictive values of pulse oximetry and fetal blood analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997; 177: 593-8.
32. Paternoster DM, Micaglio M, Tambuscio B, Bracciante R, Chiarenza A. The effects of epidural analgesia and uterine contractions on fetal oxygen saturation during the first stage of labour. Int J Obstet Anesthesia 2001; 10: 103-7.
33. East CE, Colditz PB. Effect of maternal epidural analgesia on fetal intrapartum oxygen saturation. Am J Perinatol 2002; 19: 119-26.
34. Harman CR, Baschat AA. Comprehensive assessment of fetal wellbeing: which Doppler tests should be performed? Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2003; 15: 147-57.
35. Ramos-Santos E, Devoe LD, Wakefield ML, Sherline DM, Metheny WP. The effects of epidural anesthesia on the Doppler velocimetry of umbilical and uterine arteries in normal and hypertensive patients during active term labor. Obstet Gynecol 1991; 77: 20-5.
36. Erkinjuntti M, Vaahtoranta K, Alihanka J, Kero P. Use of the SCSB method for monitoring of respiration, body movements and ballistocardiogram in infants. Early Hum Dev 1984; 9: 119-26.
37. Nikkola EM, Kirjavainen TT, Ekblad UU, Kero PO, Salonen MA. Postnatal adaptation after caesarean section or vaginal delivery, studied with the static-charge-sensitive bed. Acta Paediatr 2002; 91: 927-33.
38. Nikkola EM, Jahnukainen TJ, Ekblad UU, Kero PO, Salonen MA. Neonatal monitoring after maternal fentanyl analgesia in labor. J Clin Monit Comput 2000; 16: 597-608.
39. Brownridge P. The nature and consequences of childbirth pain. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1995; 59(Suppl.): S9-15.
40. Neumark J, Hammerle AF, Biegelmayer C. Effects of epidural analgesia on plasma catecholamines and cortisol in parturition. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1985; 29: 555-9.
41. Lowe NK. The nature of labor pain. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 186: S16-24.
42. Kubli M, Scrutton MJ, Seed PT, O'Sullivan G. An evaluation of isotonic "sport drinks" during labor. Anesth Analg 2002; 94: 404-8.
43. May AE, Elton CD. The effects of pain and its management on mother and fetus. Bailliere's Clin Obstet Gynaecol 1998; 12: 423-41.
44. Kitzinger S. Controversies: Natural childbirth is inappropriate in a modern world - opposer position. Int J Obstet Anesthesia 2002; 11: 28-32.
45. Bhutta AT, Garg S, Rovnaghi CR. Fetal response to intra-uterine needling: is it pain? Does it matter? Pediatric Research 2002; 51: 2.
46. Glover V, Fisk NM. Fetal pain: implications for research and practice. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1999; 106: 881-6.
47. Gitau R, Fisk NM, Teixeira JM, Cameron A, Glover V. Fetal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal stress responses to invasive procedures are independent of maternal responses. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86: 104-9.
48. Fisk NM, Gitau R, Teixeira JM, Giannakoulopoulos X, Cameron AD, Glover VA. Effect of direct fetal opioid analgesia on fetal hormonal and hemodynamic stress response to intrauterine needling. Anesthesiology 2001; 95: 828-35.
49. Anand KJ, Maze M. Fetuses, fentanyl, and the stress response. Signals from the beginnings of pain? (Editorial). Anesthesiology 2001; 95: 823-5.
50. Simkin PP, O'Hara MA. Nonpharmacologic relief of pain during labor: systematic reviews of five methods. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 186: S131-59.
51. Fenwick L, Simkin P. Maternal positioning to prevent or alleviate dystocia in labor. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1987; 30: 83-9.
52. Bailey PL, Egan TD, Stanley TH. Intravenous opioid anesthetics. In: Miller RD (Ed.). Anesthesia, 5th ed, vol 1. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone; 2000: 273-376.
53. Ala-Kokko T, Vähäkangas K, Pelkonen O. Placental function and principles of drug transfer. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1993; 37: 47-9.
54. Bricker L, Lavender T. Parenteral opioids for labor pain relief: a systematic review. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 186: S94-109.
55. Tomson G, Garle RI, Thalme B, Nisell H, Nylund L, Rane A. Maternal kinetics and transplacental passage of pethidine during labour. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1982; 13: 653-9.
56. Kuhnert BR, Kuhnert PM, Philipson EH, Syracuse CD. Disposition of meperidine and normeperidine following multiple doses during labor. II. Fetus and neonate. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985; 151: 410-5.
57. Craft JB Jr, Coaldrake LA, Bolan JC, et al. Placental passage and uterine effects of fentanyl. Anesth Analg 1983; 62: 894-8.
58. Rayburn WF, Smith CV, Parriott JE, Woods RE. Randomized comparison of meperidine and fentanyl during labor. Obstet Gynecol 1989; 74: 604-6.
59. Krishna BR, Zakowski MI, Grant GJ. Sufentanil transfer in the human placenta during in vitro perfusion. Can J Anaesth 1997; 44: 996-1001.
60. Kan RE, Hughes SC, Rosen MA, Kessin C, Preston PG, Lobo EP. Intravenous remifentanil. Placental transfer, maternal and neonatal effects. Anesthesiology 1998; 88: 1467-74.
61. Volmanen P, Akural EI, Raudaskoski T, Alahuhta S. Remifentanil in obstetric analgesia: a dose finding study. Anesth Analg 2002; 94: 913-7.
62. Saunders TA, Glass PS. A trial of labor for remifentanil (Editorial). Anesth Analg 2002; 94: 771-4.
63. Blair JM, Hill DA, Fee JP. Patient-controlled analgesia for labour using remifentanil: a feasibility study. Br J Anaesth 2001; 87: 415-20.
64. McGuire W, Fowlie PW. Naloxone for narcotic-exposed newborn infants (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 1, 2003. Oxford: Update Software (CD-ROM).
65. Nicolle E, Devillier P, Delanoy B, Durand C, Bessard G. Therapeutic monitoring of nalbuphine: transplacental transfer and estimated pharmacokinetics in the neonate. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1996; 49: 485-9.
66. Schindler SD, Eder H, Ortner R, Rohrmeister K, Langer M, Fischer G. Neonatal outcome following buprenorphine maintenance during conception and throughout pregnancy. Addiction 2003; 98: 103-10.
67. Rosen MA. Nitrous oxide for relief of labor pain: a systematic review. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 186: S110-26.
68. Rosen MA. Paracervical block for labor analgesia: a brief historic review. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 186: S127-30.
69. Manninen T, Aantaa R, Salonen M, Pirhonen J, Palo P. A comparison of the hemodynamic effects of paracervical block and epidural anesthesia for labor analgesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2000; 44: 441-5.
70. Norris MC. Intrathecal opioids and fetal bradycardia: is there a link? Int J Obstet Anesthesia 2000; 9: 264-9.
71. Clarke VT, Smiley RM, Finster M. Uterine hyperactivity after intrathecal injection of fentanyl for analgesia during labor: a cause of fetal bradycardia? (Letter). Anesthesiology 1994; 81: 1083.
72. Van de Velde M, Vercauteren M, Vandermeersch E. Fetal heart rate abnormalities after regional analgesia for labor pain: the effect of intrathecal opioids. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2001; 26: 257-62.
73. Mardirosoff C, Dumont L, Boulvain M, Tramer MR. Fetal bradycardia due to intrathecal opioids for labour analgesia: a systematic review. BJOG 2002; 109: 274-81.
74. Hunter CA Jr. Uterine motility studies during labor. Observations on bilateral sympathetic nerve block in the normal and abnormal first stage of labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1963; 85: 681-6.
75. Segal S, Csavoy AN, Datta S. The tocolytic effect of catecholamines in the gravid rat uterus. Anesth Analg 1998; 87: 864-9.
76. Eltzschig HK, Lieberman ES, Camann WR. Regional anesthesia and analgesia for labor and delivery. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 319-32.
77. Bucklin BA, Chestnut DH, Hawkins JL. Intrathecal opioids versus epidural local anesthetics for labor analgesia: a meta-analysis. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2002; 27: 23-30.
78. Halpern S. Why meta-analysis? (Editorial). Reg Anesth Pain Med 2002; 27: 3-5.
79. Richardson MG. Regional anesthesia for obstetrics. Anesthesiol Clin North America 2000; 18: 383-406.
80. Mayberry LJ, Clemmens D, De A. Epidural analgesia side effects, co-interventions, and care of women during childbirth: a systematic review. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 186: S81-93.
81. Caton D, Frölich MA, Euliano TY. Anesthesia for childbirth: controversy and change. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 186: S25-30.
82. Halpern SH, Leighton BL, Ohlsson A, Barrett JF, Rice A. Effect of epidural vs parenteral opioid analgesia on the progress of labor. A meta-analysis. JAMA 1998; 280: 2105-10.
83. Howell CJ. Epidural versus non-epidural analgesia for pain relief in labour (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 1, 2003. Oxford: Update Software (CD-ROM).
84. Leighton BL, Halpern SH. The effects of epidural analgesia on labor, maternal, and neonatal outcomes: a systematic review. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 186: S69-77.
85. Lieberman E, O'Donoghue C. Unintended effects of epidural analgesia during labor: a systematic review. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 186: S31-68.
86. Thacker SB, Stroup DF. Methods and interpretation in systematic reviews: commentary on two parallel reviews of epidural analgesia during labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 186: S78-80.
87. Breen TW. Databases and obstetric anesthesia research: opportunity and limitations. Int J Obstet Anesthesia 2003; 12: 1-3.
88. Segal BS, Birnbach DJ. Epidurals and cesarean deliveries: a new look at an old problem (Editorial). Anesth Analg 2000; 9: 775-7.
89. Benedetti TJ. Birth injury and method of delivery (Editorial). N Engl J Med 1999; 341: 1758-9.
90. Towner D, Castro MA, Eby-Wilkens E, Gilbert WM. Effect of mode of delivery in nulliparous women on neonatal intracranial injury. N Engl J Med 1999; 341: 1709-14.
91. Weerasekera DS, Premaratne S. A randomised prospective trial of the obstetric forceps versus vacuum extraction using defined criteria. J Obstet Gynaecol 2002; 22: 344-5.
92. Comparative Obstetric Mobile Epidural Trial (COMET) Study Group UK. Effect of low-dose mobile versus traditional epidural techniques on mode of delivery: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2001; 358: 19-23.
93. Thornton JG, Capogna G. Reducing likelihood of instrumental delivery with epidural anaesthesia. Lancet 2001; 358: 2.
94. Fraser WD, Marcoux S, Krauss I, Douglas J, Goulet C, Boulvain M. Multicenter, randomized, controlled trial of delayed pushing for nulliparous women in the second stage of labor with continuous epidural analgesia. The PEOPLE (Pushing Early or Pushing Late with Epidural) Study Group. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000; 182: 1165-72.
95. Viscomi CM, Manullang T. Maternal fever, neonatal sepsis evaluation, and epidural labor analgesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2000; 25: 549-53.
96. Kaul B, Vallejo M, Ramanathan S, Mandell G. Epidural labor analgesia and neonatal sepsis evaluation rate: a quality improvement study. Anesth Analg 2001; 93: 986-90.
97. Goetzl L, Cohen A, Frigoletto F Jr, Ringer SA, Lang JM, Lieberman E. Maternal epidural use and neonatal sepsis evaluation in afebrile mothers. Pediatrics 2001; 108: 1099-1101.
98. Camann W. Intrapartum epidural analgesia and neonatal sepsis evaluations. A casual or causal association? Anesthesiology 1999; 90: 1243-54.
99. Gaiser R. Neonatal effects of labor analgesia. Int Anesthesiol Clin 2002; 40: 49-65.
100. D'Alessio JG, Ramanathan J. Effects of maternal anesthesia in the neonate. Semin Perinatol 1998; 22: 350-62.
101. Ala-Kokko TI, Myllynen P, Vähäkangas K. Ex vivo perfusion of the human placental cotyledon: implications for anesthetic pharmacology. Int J Obstet Anesthesia 2000; 9: 26-38.
102. Celleno D, Capogna G, Emanuelli M, et al. Which induction drug for cesarean section? A comparison of thiopental sodium, propofol, and midazolam. J Clin Anesth 1993; 5: 284-8.
103. Sánchez-Alcaraz A, Quintana MB, Laguarda M. Placental transfer and neonatal effects of propofol in caesarean section. J Clin Pharm Ther 1998; 23: 19-23.
104. Herman NL, Li AT, Van Decar TK, et al. Transfer of methohexital across the perfused human placenta. J Clin Anesth 2000; 12: 25-30.
105. Gambling DR, Sharma SK, White PF, Van Beveren T, Bala AS, Gouldson R. Use of sevoflurane during elective cesarean birth: a comparison with isoflurane and spinal anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1995; 81: 90-5.
106. Abboud TK, Zhu J, Richardson M, Peres da Silva E, Donovan M. Desflurane: a new volatile anesthetic for cesarean section. Maternal and neonatal effects. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1995; 39: 723-6.
107. Kavak ZN, Basgül A, Ceyhan N. Short-term outcome of newborn infants: spinal versus general anesthesia for elective cesarean section. A prospective randomized study. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2001; 100: 50-4.
108. Dick WF. Anaesthesia for caesarean section (epidural and general): effects on the neonate. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1995; 59(Suppl.): S61-7.
109. Kolatat T, Somboonnanonda A, Lertakyamanee J, Chinachot T, Tritrakarn T, Muangkasem J. Effects of general and regional anesthesia on the neonate (a prospective, randomized trial). J Med Assoc Thai 1999; 82: 40-5.
110. Ratcliffe FM, Evans JM. Neonatal wellbeing after elective caesarean delivery with general, spinal, and epidural anaesthesia. Eur J Anaesthesiol 1993; 10: 175-81.
111. Tsen LC, Pitner R, Camann WR. General anesthesia for cesarean section at a tertiary care hospital 1990-1995: indications and implications. Int J Obstet Anesthesia 1998; 7: 147-52.
112. Stuart KA, Krakauer H, Schone E, Lin M, Cheng E, Meyer GS. Labor epidurals improve outcomes for babies of mothers at high risk for unscheduled cesarean section. J Perinatol 2001; 21: 178-85.
113. Levy BT, Dawson JD, Toth PP, Bowdler N. Predictors of neonatal resuscitation, low Apgar scores, and umbilical artery pH among growth-restricted neonates. Obstet Gynecol 1998; 91: 909-16.
114. Reynolds F. Controversies: The drive for regional anaesthesia for elective caesarean section has gone too far - opposer position. Int J Obstet Anesthesia 2002; 11: 289-95.
115. Mueller MD, Brühwiler H, Schüpfer GK, Lüscher KP. Higher rate of fetal acidemia after regional anesthesia for elective cesarean delivery. Obstet Gynecol 1997; 90: 131-4.
116. Alahuhta S, Jouppila P. How to maintain uteroplacental perfusion during obstetric anaesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand Suppl 1997: 106-8.
117. Emmett RS, Cyna AM, Andrew M, Simmons SW. Techniques for preventing hypotension during spinal anaesthesia for caesarean section (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 1, 2003. Oxford: Update Software (CD-ROM).
118. Shearer VE, Ramin SM, Wallace DH, Dax JS, Gilstrap LC 3rd. Fetal effects of prophylactic ephedrine and maternal hypotension during regional anesthesia for cesarean section. J Matern Fetal Med 1996; 5: 79-84.
119. Lee A, Ngan Kee WD, Gin T. A quantitative, systematic review of randomized controlled trials of ephedrine versus phenylephrine for the management of hypotension during spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery. Anesth Analg 2002; 94: 920-6.
120. Ngan Kee WD. Obstetric neuraxial anaesthesia: which vasopressor should we be using? (Letter). Int J Obstet Anesthesia 2003; 12: 55-64.
121. Harrop-Griffiths W. Controversies: Ephedrine is the vasopressor of choice for obstetric regional anaesthesia - Proposer position. Int J Obstet Anesthesia 2002; 11: 275-81.
122. Thomas DG. Controversies: Ephedrine is the vasopressor of choice for obstetric regional anaesthesia - opposer position. Int J Obstet Anesthesia 2002; 11: 275-81.
123. Cooper DW, Carpenter M, Mowbray P, Desira WR, Ryall DM, Kokri MS. Fetal and maternal effects of phenylephrine and ephedrine during spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery. Anesthesiology 2002; 97: 1582-90.
124. Wright PM, Iftikhar M, Fitzpatrick KT, Moore J, Thompson W. Vasopressor therapy for hypotension during epidural anesthesia for cesarean section: effects on maternal and fetal flow velocity ratios. Anesth Analg 1992; 75: 56-63.
125. Jordan MJ. Controversies: Women undergoing caesarean section under regional anaesthesia should routinely receive supplementary oxygen - proposer position. Int J Obstet Anesthesia 2002; 11: 282-8.
126. Kelly MC, Fitzpatrick KT, Hill DA. Respiratory effects of spinal anaesthesia for caesarean section. Anaesthesia 1996; 51: 1120-2.
127. Cogliano MS, Graham AC, Clark VA. Supplementary oxygen administration for elective caesarean section under spinal anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 2002; 57: 66-9.
128. Saugstad OB, Rootwelt T, Aalen O. Resuscitation of asphyxiated newborn infants with room air or oxygen: an international controlled trial: The Resair 2 Study. Pediatrics 1998; 102: el. Available at: http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/102/1/e1. (Accessed May 6, 2003).
129. Hill D. Controversies: Women undergoing caesarean section under regional anesthesia should routinely receive supplementary oxygen-opposer position. Int J Obstet Anesthesia 2002; 11: 282-8.
130. Saugstad OD. Update on oxygen radical disease in neonatology. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2001; 13: 147-53.
131. Saugstad OD. Is oxygen more toxic than currently believed? Pediatrics 2001; 108: 1203-5.
132. Vento M, Asensi M, Sastre J, Garcia-Sala F, Pallardo FV, Vina J. Resuscitation with room air instead of 100% oxygen prevents oxidative stress in moderately asphyxiated term neonates. Pediatrics 2001; 107: 642-7.
133. Perlman JM. Resuscitation - air versus 100% oxygen (Letter). Pediatrics 2002; 109: 347-9.
134. Halliwell B. Free radicals, antioxidants, and human disease: curiosity, cause, or consequence? Lancet 1994; 344: 721-4.
135. Vendemiale G, Grattagliano I, Altomare E. An update on the role of free radicals and antioxidant defense in human disease. Int J Clin Lab Res 1999; 29: 49-55.
136. Backe SK, Lyons G. Oxygen and elective caesarean section (Editorial). Br J Anaesth 2002; 88: 4-5.
137. Khaw KS, Wang CC, Ngan Kee WD, Pang CP, Rogers MS. Effects of high inspired oxygen fraction during elective caesarean section under spinal anaesthesia on maternal and fetal oxygenation and lipid peroxidation. Br J Anaesth 2002; 88: 18-23.
138. Hofmeyr GJ. Maternal oxygen administration for fetal distress (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 1 2003. Oxford: Update Software (CD-ROM).
139. Halpern SH, Walsh VL. Multimodal therapy for post-cesarean delivery pain (Editorial). Reg Anesth Pain Med 2001; 26: 298-300.
140. Rathmell JP, Viscomi CM, Ashburn MA. Management of nonobstetric pain during pregnancy and lactation. Anesth Analg 1997; 85: 1074-87.
141. Baka NF, Bayoumeu F, Boutroy MJ, Laxenaire MC. Colostrum morphine concentrations during postcesarean intravenous patient-controlled analgesia. Anesth Analg 2002; 94: 184-7.
142. Spigset O. Anaesthetic agents and excretion in breast milk. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1994; 38: 94-103.
143. American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Drugs. The transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human milk. Pediatrics 2001; 108: 776-89.
144. Goodman S. Anesthesia for nonobstetric surgery in the pregnant patient. Semin Perinatol 2002; 26: 136-45.
145. Beilin Y. Anesthesia for nonobstetric surgery during pregnancy. Mt Sinai J Med 1998; 65: 265-70.
146. Yarnell RW. Emergency surgery during pregnancy. Winterlude 1995. Available at: http://www.anesthesia.org/winterlude/wl95/wl95_6.html (Accessed May 5, 2003).
147. Goldenberg RL. The management of preterm labor. Obstet Gynecol 2002; 100(5Pt1): 1020-37.
148. Dufour P, Vinatier D, Puech F. The use of intravenous nitroglycerin for cervico-uterine relaxation: a review of the literature. Arch Gynecol Obstet 1997; 261: 1-7.
149. Cauldwell CB. Anesthesia for fetal surgery. Anesthesiol Clin North America 2002; 20: 211-26.
150. Smith RP, Gitau R, Glover V, Fisk NM. Pain and stress in the human fetus. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2000; 92: 161-5.
151. Rosen MA. Anesthesia for fetal procedures and surgery. Yonsei Med J 2001; 42: 669-80.
152. Report of the MRC group on fetal pain. 28 August 2001. Available at: http://www.mrc.ac.uk/pdf-fetal.pdf (Accessed May 5, 2003).
153. van Lingen RA, Simons SH, Anderson BJ, Tibboel D. The effects of analgesia in the vulnerable infant during the perinatal period. Clin Perinatol 2002; 29: 511-34.
154. Thurlow JA, Kinsella SM. Intrauterine resuscitation: active management of fetal distress. Int J Obstet Anesthesia 2002; 11: 105-16.
155. Anonymous. Guidelines 2000 for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Part 8: advanced challenges in resuscitation. Section 3: special challenges in ECC. The American Heart Association in collaboration with the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. Circulation 2000; 102(8 Suppl): I229-52.
156. Johnson MD, Luppi CJ, Over DC. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation. In: Gambling DR, Douglas MJ (Eds). Obstetric Anesthesia and Uncommon Disorders. Philadelphia: WB. Saunders Company; 1998: 51-74
157. Mitten M, Irvine LM. Postmortem and perimortem caesarean section: what are the indications? J R Soc Med 2000; 93: 6-9.
158. Katz VL, Dotters DJ, Droegemueller W. Perimortem cesarean delivery. Obstet Gynecol 1986; 68: 571-6.