Transnational civil society and the national identity question in East Asia

Global Governance

Volumn 10, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 227-246

  He, Baogang ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TASMANIA   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 2942696474     PISSN: 10752846     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/19426720-01002007     Document Type: Review

References (49)

1. Elsewhere I have discussed theoretical linkages between democracy, civil society, NGOs, and the national identity question and provided a conceptual framework whereby we can better understand the actual or potential roles of civil society in defining, resolving, or managing the boundary issue. See Baogang He, "The Roles of Civil Society in Defining the Boundary of a Political Community: The Case of South Korea and Taiwan," Asian Studies Review 23, no. 1 (March 1999): 27-48; and "Democracy and Civil Society," in April Carter and Geoffrey Stokes, eds., Democratic Theory Today: Challenge for the 21st Century (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2002), pp. 203-227.
2. Elsewhere I have discussed theoretical linkages between democracy, civil society, NGOs, and the national identity question and provided a conceptual framework whereby we can better understand the actual or potential roles of civil society in defining, resolving, or managing the boundary issue. See Baogang He, "The Roles of Civil Society in Defining the Boundary of a Political Community: The Case of South Korea and Taiwan," Asian Studies Review 23, no. 1 (March 1999): 27-48; and "Democracy and Civil Society," in April Carter and Geoffrey Stokes, eds., Democratic Theory Today: Challenge for the 21st Century (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2002), pp. 203-227.
3. See Craig Calhoun. "Nationalism and Civil Society: Democracy, Diversity and Self-Determination," in C. Calhoun, ed., Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1994), p. 309; Alexis Heraclides, The Self-Determination of Minorities in International Politics (London: Frank Cass, 1991); Roland Bleiker, Doug Bond, and Myung-Soo Lee, "The Role and Dynamics of Nongovernmental Actors in Contemporary Korea," Korean Studies 18 (1994): 103-122; Michael Freeman, "Democrat and Dynamite: The Peoples' Right to Self-Determination," Political Studies 44 (1996): 746-761; Paul Dixon, "Paths to Peace in Northern Ireland (I): Civil Society and Consociational Approaches," Democratization 4. no. 2 (1997): 1-27, and "Paths to Peace in Northern Ireland (II): The Peace Process in 1973-74 and 1994-96," Democratization 4, no. 3 (autumn 1997): 1-25; and Baogang He, The Democratic Implications of Civil Society in China (London: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
4. See Craig Calhoun. "Nationalism and Civil Society: Democracy, Diversity and Self-Determination," in C. Calhoun, ed., Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1994), p. 309; Alexis Heraclides, The Self-Determination of Minorities in International Politics (London: Frank Cass, 1991); Roland Bleiker, Doug Bond, and Myung-Soo Lee, "The Role and Dynamics of Nongovernmental Actors in Contemporary Korea," Korean Studies 18 (1994): 103-122; Michael Freeman, "Democrat and Dynamite: The Peoples' Right to Self-Determination," Political Studies 44 (1996): 746-761; Paul Dixon, "Paths to Peace in Northern Ireland (I): Civil Society and Consociational Approaches," Democratization 4. no. 2 (1997): 1-27, and "Paths to Peace in Northern Ireland (II): The Peace Process in 1973-74 and 1994-96," Democratization 4, no. 3 (autumn 1997): 1-25; and Baogang He, The Democratic Implications of Civil Society in China (London: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
5. See Craig Calhoun. "Nationalism and Civil Society: Democracy, Diversity and Self-Determination," in C. Calhoun, ed., Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1994), p. 309; Alexis Heraclides, The Self-Determination of Minorities in International Politics (London: Frank Cass, 1991); Roland Bleiker, Doug Bond, and Myung-Soo Lee, "The Role and Dynamics of Nongovernmental Actors in Contemporary Korea," Korean Studies 18 (1994): 103-122; Michael Freeman, "Democrat and Dynamite: The Peoples' Right to Self-Determination," Political Studies 44 (1996): 746-761; Paul Dixon, "Paths to Peace in Northern Ireland (I): Civil Society and Consociational Approaches," Democratization 4. no. 2 (1997): 1-27, and "Paths to Peace in Northern Ireland (II): The Peace Process in 1973-74 and 1994-96," Democratization 4, no. 3 (autumn 1997): 1-25; and Baogang He, The Democratic Implications of Civil Society in China (London: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
6. See Craig Calhoun. "Nationalism and Civil Society: Democracy, Diversity and Self-Determination," in C. Calhoun, ed., Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1994), p. 309; Alexis Heraclides, The Self-Determination of Minorities in International Politics (London: Frank Cass, 1991); Roland Bleiker, Doug Bond, and Myung-Soo Lee, "The Role and Dynamics of Nongovernmental Actors in Contemporary Korea," Korean Studies 18 (1994): 103-122; Michael Freeman, "Democrat and Dynamite: The Peoples' Right to Self-Determination," Political Studies 44 (1996): 746-761; Paul Dixon, "Paths to Peace in Northern Ireland (I): Civil Society and Consociational Approaches," Democratization 4. no. 2 (1997): 1-27, and "Paths to Peace in Northern Ireland (II): The Peace Process in 1973-74 and 1994-96," Democratization 4, no. 3 (autumn 1997): 1-25; and Baogang He, The Democratic Implications of Civil Society in China (London: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
7. See Craig Calhoun. "Nationalism and Civil Society: Democracy, Diversity and Self-Determination," in C. Calhoun, ed., Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1994), p. 309; Alexis Heraclides, The Self-Determination of Minorities in International Politics (London: Frank Cass, 1991); Roland Bleiker, Doug Bond, and Myung-Soo Lee, "The Role and Dynamics of Nongovernmental Actors in Contemporary Korea," Korean Studies 18 (1994): 103-122; Michael Freeman, "Democrat and Dynamite: The Peoples' Right to Self-Determination," Political Studies 44 (1996): 746-761; Paul Dixon, "Paths to Peace in Northern Ireland (I): Civil Society and Consociational Approaches," Democratization 4. no. 2 (1997): 1-27, and "Paths to Peace in Northern Ireland (II): The Peace Process in 1973-74 and 1994-96," Democratization 4, no. 3 (autumn 1997): 1-25; and Baogang He, The Democratic Implications of Civil Society in China (London: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
8. See Craig Calhoun. "Nationalism and Civil Society: Democracy, Diversity and Self-Determination," in C. Calhoun, ed., Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1994), p. 309; Alexis Heraclides, The Self-Determination of Minorities in International Politics (London: Frank Cass, 1991); Roland Bleiker, Doug Bond, and Myung-Soo Lee, "The Role and Dynamics of Nongovernmental Actors in Contemporary Korea," Korean Studies 18 (1994): 103-122; Michael Freeman, "Democrat and Dynamite: The Peoples' Right to Self-Determination," Political Studies 44 (1996): 746-761; Paul Dixon, "Paths to Peace in Northern Ireland (I): Civil Society and Consociational Approaches," Democratization 4. no. 2 (1997): 1-27, and "Paths to Peace in Northern Ireland (II): The Peace Process in 1973-74 and 1994-96," Democratization 4, no. 3 (autumn 1997): 1-25; and Baogang He, The Democratic Implications of Civil Society in China (London: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
9. See Craig Calhoun. "Nationalism and Civil Society: Democracy, Diversity and Self-Determination," in C. Calhoun, ed., Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1994), p. 309; Alexis Heraclides, The Self-Determination of Minorities in International Politics (London: Frank Cass, 1991); Roland Bleiker, Doug Bond, and Myung-Soo Lee, "The Role and Dynamics of Nongovernmental Actors in Contemporary Korea," Korean Studies 18 (1994): 103-122; Michael Freeman, "Democrat and Dynamite: The Peoples' Right to Self-Determination," Political Studies 44 (1996): 746-761; Paul Dixon, "Paths to Peace in Northern Ireland (I): Civil Society and Consociational Approaches," Democratization 4. no. 2 (1997): 1-27, and "Paths to Peace in Northern Ireland (II): The Peace Process in 1973-74 and 1994-96," Democratization 4, no. 3 (autumn 1997): 1-25; and Baogang He, The Democratic Implications of Civil Society in China (London: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
10. See Jackie Smith, Charles Chatfield, and Ron Pagnucco, eds., Transnational Social Movements and Global Politics: Solidarity Beyond the State (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1997).
11. Paul Ghils, "International Civil Society: International Non-governmental Organizations in the International System," International Social Science Journal 133 (1992): 417-431.
12. John Boli and George M. Thomas estimated that INGOs have proliferated from about 200 active organizations in 1900 to about 800 in 1930, over 2,000 in 1960, and nearly 4,000 in 1980. See John Boli and George M. Thomas, "World Culture in the World Polity: A Century of International Non-Governmental Organization," American Sociological Review 62 (1997): 172.
13. Tapol is the Indonesia Human Rights Campaign, established in London to expose human rights violations in Indonesia, East Timor, West Papua, and Aceh. From 15 February 1999 to August 2001, it has issued sixteen statements and news reports about Aceh and human rights violations there.
14. Founded in 1988, it aims at promoting human rights, democratic freedom, and self-determination for Tibetans and has members from sixty-seven countries.
15. Founded in 1989, at the request of the Tibetan government-in-exile, it aims at promoting self-determination for the Tibetan people, with 1,000 members from fourteen countries.
16. Elsewhere I have discussed the challenge of transnational activism on national citizenship. See Baogang He, "World Citizenship and Transnational Activism," in Nicola Piper and Anders Uhlin, eds., Contextualizing Transnational Activism: Problems of Power and Democracy (London: Routledge, 2003), chap. 5.
17. Amnesty International Report 1992 (London: Amnesty International Publications, 1992), p. 163.
18. See http://www.kimsoft.com/kr-demo.htm (accessed 28 August 2002).
19. See http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2000/200006/news06/18.htm (accessed 28 August 2002).
20. Human Rights Forum (spring 1995): 40-41.
21. James Seymour, "Human Rights and Tibet: The Many Layers of Contradictions (in Chinese, translated by Liao Jianming), Human Rights Tribune 3, no. 1 (spring 1992): 37-29.
22. Boli and Thomas, "World Culture in the World Polity."
23. See http://www.tibet.com/Status/icj-es.html; and http://www.tibeticlt.org/reports/occupied.html (accessed 28 August 2002).
24. See http://www.tibet.com/Status/icj-es.html (accessed 14 August 2001).
25. Tibet Bulletin, Nos. 5-6 (2000): 9-11.
26. See Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1998). As for democratic solutions such as referendum mechanism, see Baogang He, "Referenda as a Solution to the National Identity/Boundary Question: An Empirical Critique of the Theoretical Literature," Alternatives: Global, Local, Political 27, no. 1 (2002): 67-97.
27. See Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1998). As for democratic solutions such as referendum mechanism, see Baogang He, "Referenda as a Solution to the National Identity/Boundary Question: An Empirical Critique of the Theoretical Literature," Alternatives: Global, Local, Political 27, no. 1 (2002): 67-97.
28. See http://www.tibet.com/Status/icj-es.html (accessed 14 August 2001).
29. John G. Taylor, East Timor: The Price of Freedom (London: Zed Books, 1999), p. 180.
30. Ian Martin, Self-Determination in East Timor: The United Nations, the Ballot, and International Intervention (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2001), pp. 21-24.
31. Ibid., p. 56.
32. See IFET's website, at http://www.etan.org/ifet.
33. For example, Ian Martin, head of the UN Mission in East Timor in 1999, was secretary-general of Amnesty International and special representative of the secretary-general for the East Timor Population Consultation.
34. Calhoun, "Nationalism and Civil Society."
35. It argues that the ideational elements of persuasive communication essential for mobilization of consensus and for the sustaining of collective action explain the impact of social movements on discourse and policy outcome. Robert D. Benford, "An Insider's Critique of the Social Movement Framing Perspective," Sociological Inquiry 67, no. 4 (1997): 409-430.
36. See the statement of the International Forum for Aceh, available online at http://acehnet.tripod.com/ifa.htm (accessed 15 January 2004).
37. Elsewhere I have discussed the role of international community, in particular, cosmopolitan democracy in addressing the national identity question. See Baogang He, "Cosmopolitan Democracy and the National Identity Question in Europe and East Asia," International Relations of the Asia Pacific 2, no. 1:47-68.
38. Freeman, "Democrat and Dynamite."
39. Kenneth T. Andrews, "Social Movements and Policy Implementation: The Mississippi Civil Rights Movement and the War on Poverty, 1965 to 1971," American Sociological Review 66 (2001): 71-95.
40. See James Cotton, ed., East Timor and Australia: AIIA Contributions to the Policy Debate (Canberra: Australian Defence Studies Centre, Australian Defence Force Academy, in association with the Australian Institute of International Affairs, 1999).
41. See IFET's website, at http://www.etan.org/ifet.
42. Tibetan Bulletin 5, no. 3 (July-August 2001): 11
43. Nicanor Perlas, Shaping Globalization: Civil Society, Cultural Power and Threefolding (Quezon City, Philippines: Center for Alternative Development Initiatives and Global Network for Social Threefolding, 1999), p. 80.
44. See Kathryn Hochstetler, Elizabeth Jay Friedman, and Ann Marie Clark, "The Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society: A Comparison of NGO Participation in UN World Conferences on the Environment, Women, and Human Rights," World Politics 51, no. 1 (1998): 1-35.
45. Richard Falk, Human Rights Horizons: The Pursuit of Justice in a Globalising World (New York: Routledge, 2000), p. 89.
46. Tajudeen Abdul-Raheem, general secretary of the Pan-African Movement, made this criticism of INGOs in Africa, available online at http://www.mingpaonews.com/20001102/tca1hr.htm.
47. For skepticism about world citizenship, see Baogang He, "World Citizenship and Transnational Activism," pp. 87-88.
48. See http://www.cnet21.com (accessed 28 August 2002).
49. Also see Chadwick Alger, "The Emerging Roles of NGOs in the UN System: From Articles 71 to a People's Millennium Assembly," Global Governance 8, no. 1 (2002): 93-117.