Blackhead disease (Histomoniasis) in poultry: A critical review

Avian Diseases

Volumn 49, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 462-476

  McDougald, L R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Chemotherapy; Control; Epidemiology; Flagellate; Histomonas; Poultry

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; ANIMAL DISEASE; BIRD DISEASE; FLAGELLATE; GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND AGING; HISTORY; PARASITOLOGY; PATHOGENICITY; POULTRY; REVIEW; SARCOMASTIGOPHORA INFECTION;

ANIMALS; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 21ST CENTURY; MASTIGOPHORA INFECTIONS; POULTRY; POULTRY DISEASES; TRICHOMONADIDA;

AVES; BACILLUS SUBTILIS; BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS); CLOSTRIDIUM; ENTAMOEBA HISTOLYTICA; ESCHERICHIA COLI; GALLUS GALLUS; GIARDIA INTESTINALIS; HETERAKIS GALLINARUM; HISTOMONAS; HISTOMONAS MELEAGRIDIS; MASTIGOPHORA (FLAGELLATES); MELEAGRIS GALLOPAVO; PROTOZOA; TRICHOMONAS;

EID: 29344445892     PISSN: 00052086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1637/7420-081005R.1     Document Type: Review

References (358)

1. Abd-El-Motelib, T. Y., B. Salem, and M. Taha. Histomoniasis in the turkey. Assiut Vet. Med. J. 25:286-289. 1991.
2. Ackert, J. E. A means of transmitting the fowl nematode Heterakis papillosa Bloch. Science 46:394-395. 1917.
3. Akester, A. R., R. S. Anderson, K. J. Hill, and G. W. Osbaldiston. A radiographic study of urine flow in the domestic fowl. Br. Poult. Sci. 8:209-212. 1967.
4. Al-Khateeb, G., and M. F. Hansen. Plasma glutamic oxalacetic transaminase as related to liver lesions from histomoniasis in turkeys. Avian Dis. 17:269-273. 1973.
5. Al-Khateeb, G., and M. F. Hansen. Plasma enzymes as a measure of susceptibility of chickens and turkeys to infection with Histomonas meleagridis. Avian Dis. 18:507-514. 1974.
6. Allen, E. A. Pentatrichomonas associated with certain cases of enterohepatitis or "blackhead" of poultry. Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc. 55:315-322. 1936.
7. Allen, E. A. A rediscription of Trichomonas gallinarum Martin and Robertson, 1911, from the chicken and turkey. Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash. 7:65-68. 1940.
8. Allen, E. A. Macroscopic differentiation of lesions of histomoniasis and trichomoniasis in turkeys. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2:214-217. 1941.
9. Allen, E. A., and M. W. Olsen. Clinical pathology of trichomoniasis of the lower digestive tract of turkeys. Poultry Sci. 21:464. 1942.
10. Allison, L. N. Leucochloridiomorpha constantiae (Mueller) (Brachylaemidae), its life cycle and taxonomic relationships among digenetic trematodes. Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc. 62:127-168. 1943.
11. Al-Sadi, H. I., H. A. Basher, and T. S. Qubih. A retrospective study of clinically diagnosed poultry diseases in Nenevha Province, Iraq. Iraqi J. Vet. Sci. 13:107-113. 2000.
12. Arisue, N., T. Hashimoto, H. Yoshikawa, Y. Nakamura, G. Nakamura, F. Nakamura, T. Yano, and M. Hasegawa. Phylogenetic position of Blastocystis hominis and of stramenopiles inferred from multiple molecular sequence data. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 49:42-53. 2002.
13. Avakyan, A. A., and E. M. Marutyan. The intestinal protozoa of chickens and their control in the Crimea, USSR. Kishechnye Prosteischie, pp. 5-9. 1982.
14. Ayaz, E., and H. Solmaz. Case report of Histomonas melelagridis (Protozoa: Monocercomonadidae) in turkeys in Van. Türkiye Parazitoloji Dergisi 25:278-279. 2001.
15. Aydin, Y., A. Atasever, and C. Kokuuslu. Poultry diseases, including neoplasms, seen in poultry in the period 1974-1991. Vet. Fakultesi Dergisi Univ. Ankara 38:352-358. 1991.
16. Bacha, W. J., Jr. Cloacal drop inoculation of trematode larvae, a mechanical aspect. Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash. 51:165-166. 1984.
17. Bayon, H. P. The pathology of Histomonas enterohepatitis in turkeys and other birds. Vet. Rec. 49:1010-1015. 1937.
18. Bayon, H. P., and A. Bishop. Cultivation of Histomonas meleagridis from the liver lesions of a hen. Nature 139:371. 1937.
19. Beg, M. K., and M. J. Clarkson. Effect of histomniasis on the serum proteins of the fowl. J. Comp. Pathol. 80:281-285. 1970.
20. Beg, M. K., and M. J. Clarkson. Serum enzymes in histomoniasis in the turkey. J. Comp. Pathol. 80:415-418. 1970.
21. Bendayan, J. P. Tratamiento del blackhead en pavos con 2-acetylamine-5-nitrothiazole. Gaceta Veterinaria, Buenos Aires 19:268-271. 1957.
22. Berks, G., and R. A. Neal. The effect of some drugs upon Histomonas melelagridis in vitro. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 46:68-71. 1952.
23. Bisbocci, G. Contributo allo studio dell'entero-epatite infettiva dei gallinacei. Nuovo Ercolani 43:290-314. 1938.
24. Bishop, A. Histomonas meleagridis in domestic fowls (Gallus gallus). Cultivation and experimental infection. Parasitology 30:181-194. 1938.
25. Blount, W. P. New arsenical preparations in the treatment of blackhead in turkeys. Vet. J. 94:344-347. 1938.
26. Boado, E., C. Herrera, S. Lopez, and D. Quintero. Revista Cubana de Ciencia Avicola 16:45-52. 1989.
27. Borst, G.H.A., and G. M. Lambers. Typhlohepatitis in ostriches (Struthio camelus caused by Histomonas infection. Tijd. Diergeneeskunde 110:536-537. 1985.
28. Bowen, T. E., T. W. Sullivan, and O. D. Grace. Effect of cupric sulfate on prophylactic efficacy of 3 arsenic acid compounds against histomoniasis in young turkeys. Poultry Sci. 50:861-866. 1971.
29. Bradley, R. E., J. Johnson, and W. M. Reid. Apparent obligate relationship between Histomonas melelagridis and Escherichia coli in producing disease. J. Parasitol. 50:51. 1964.
30. Bradley, R. E., and W. M. Reid. Histomonas meleagridis and several bacteria as agents of infectious enterohepatitis in gnotobiotic turkeys. Exp. Parasitol. 19:91-101. 1966.
31. Brown, D. M., J. A. Upcroft, M. R. Edwards, and P. Upcroft. Anaerobic bacterial metabolism in the ancient eukaryote Giardia duodenalis. Int. J. Parasitolol. 28:149-164. 1998.
32. Browne, T. G. Some observations on the digestive system of the fowl. Comp. Pathol. Ther. 35:12. 1922.
33. Byrne, P. J., and K. M. Lowndes. Avian disease diagnoses in Ireland 1973-74. Vet. Serv. Bull., Ireland 5:3-14. 1975.
34. Callait, M. P., C. Granier, C., Chauve, and L. Zenner. In vitro activity of therapeutic drugs against Histomonas meleagridis (Smith, 1895). Poult. Sci. 81:1122-1127. 2002.
35. Campbell, D., and K. Chadee. Survival strategies of Entamoeba histolytica. Modulation of cell-mediated immune responses. Parasitol. Today 13:184-190. 1997.
36. Catellani, G. Studio isopatologico di blastomicosi del pollo. Acta Med. Vet. 4:367-400. 1956.
37. Catellani, G., and M. Iannucci. Su una micosi dei polli determinata da un blastomicete patogeno del genere Torulopsis. Acta Med. Vet. 24:335-350. 1956.
38. Cavalier-Smith, T. A revised six-kingdom system of life. Biol. Rev. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 73:203-266. 1998
39. Ceretto, F. Richerche sperimentali sullarizoni tossica del filtrato di coltura e dell estratto di Candida albicans isolata nel entero-epatite infettiva dei gallinacei. Ann. Fac. Med. Vet. Torino 4:521-534. 1954.
40. Chappel, L. R. Effect of Histomonas meleagridis on development of Eimeria tenella. J. Parasitol. 59:637-643. 1973.
41. Chappel, L. R. Using the Hml1 strain of Histomonas meleagridis in evaluating chemotherapeutants in chicks. Avian Dis. 19:679-682. 1975.
42. Chaudhury, B., S. Mahanta, and A. Chakraborty. Histomoniasis in domestic ducks: case report. Indian J. Vet. Pathol. 8:53-54. 1984.
43. Chermette, R. Reflections in avian histomoniasis. Point Veterinaire 12:70-72. 1981.
44. Chester, F. D., and M. D. Robin. Entero-hepatitis or blackhead of fowls. Delaware College Agricultural Experimental Station, Report. pp. 60-66. 1900.
45. Chrost, K. Metafylaxe protozoarnich onemocneni u bazantich kurat v dobe odchovu [Metaphylaxis of protozoal diseases in pheasant poults at the time of rearing]. Sbor. Ved. Praci Ustredn. Stat. Vet. Ustavu v Praze 20:47-49. 1990.
46. Chute, A. M., and E. E. Lund. Experimental histomoniasis in the Guinea fowl, Numida meleagridis. J. Protozool. 19:639-643. 1972.
47. Chute, M. B., and A. M. Chute Freeze preservation of Histomonas meleagridis. Poult. Sci. 48:2189-2191. 1969.
48. Chute, M. B., A. M. Chute, and G. C. Wilkins. Effect of dimetridazole on transmission of Histomonas meleagridis by Heterakis gallinarum. Parasitology 77:41-48. 1978.
49. Chute, M. B., and E. E. Lund. Heterakis gallinarum in Guinea fowl, Numida meleagris: survival and comparative potential for transmitting Histomonas meleagridis. Exp. Parasitol. 35:102-109. 1974.
50. Chute, A. M., E. E. Lund, and G. C. Wilkins. Comparative responses of white leghorn and New Hampshire chickens to experimental infections with Histomonas meleagridis and Heterakis gallinarum. Poult. Sci. 55:710-713. 1976.
51. Chute, A. M., E. E. Lund, and G. C. Wilkins. Comparative responses of Indian red jungle fowl, light Brahma chickens and 3 other galliform birds to experimental infections with Histomonas meleagridis and Heterakis gallinarum. Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash. 44:126-130. 1977.
52. Ciurea, V., I. Macarie, I. Paul, and M. Brinzoiu. Cercetari histopatologice pentru diagnosticul histomonozei aviare [Histopathological diagnosis of avian histomoniasis]. Zootechnie si Medicina Veterinara 4:141-153. 1960.
53. Clarkson, M. J. Histomoniasis and the serum proteins of the turkey. Vet. Rec. 71:838. 1959.
54. Clarkson, M. J. The blood supply of the liver of the turkey and the anatomy of the biliary tract with reference to infection with Histomonas meleagridis. Res. Vet. Sci. 2:259-264. 1961.
55. Clarkson, M. J. The progressive pathology of Heterakis-produced histomoniasis in turkeys. Res. Vet. Sci. 3:443-448. 1962.
56. Clarkson, M. J. Immunological responses to Histomonas meleagridis in turkey and fowl. Immunology 6:156-168. 1963.
57. Clarkson, M. J. Progressive serum protein changes in turkeys infected with Histomonas meleagridis. J. Comp. Pathol. 76:387-396. 1966.
58. Cole, L. J., and P. B. Hadley. Blackhead, a coccidial disease of turkeys. Science 27:996-995. 1908.
59. Cole, L. J., and P. B. Hadley. Blackhead in turkeys: a study in avian coccidiosis. Bulletin 141, Agricultural Experiment Station of the Rhode Island State College, Kingston, RI. pp. 137-267 + 11 pl. 1910.
60. Cooper, D. M. Effects of feeding furazolidone to fowls. II. Effect on egg production, fertility and hatchability of low level feeding to pullets. J. Comp. Pathol. 66:312-316. 1956.
61. Cooper, D. M., and G. Skulski. Effects of feeding furazolidone to fowls. I. Effect on body weight and sexual development in cockerels. J. Comp. Pathol. 66:299-311. 1956.
62. Cooper, D. M., and G. Skulski. Effect of feeding 2-amino-5-nitrothiazole and 2-acetyl-amino-5-nitrothiazole on reproduction in the fowl. J. Comp. Pathol. 67:186-195. 1957.
63. Cortes, P. L., R. P. Chin, M. C. Bland, R. Crespo, and H. L. Shivaprasad. Histomoniasis in the bursa of Fabricius of chickens. Avian Dis. 48:711-715. 2004.
64. Cosoroaba, I., A. Stupariu, and I. Popescu. Epidemiology and therapy of Histomonas infection in a flock of turkeys. Lucrari Stiintifice, Institutul Agronomic Timisoara, Seria Medicina Veterinara 18:114-117. 1981.
65. Costello, L. C. The efficacy of furazolidone against blackhead (infectious enterohepatitis) in turkeys. Proc. First National Symposium on Nitrofurans in Agriculture. Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI. pp. 64-65. 1956.
66. Costello, L. C., and H. M. DeVolt. Studies on the chemoprophy-lactic action of furoxone against infectious enterohepatitis (blackhead) of turkeys. Poult. Sci. 35:952-955. 1956.
67. Cuckler, A. C., C. M. Malanga, A. J. Basso, R. C. O'Neill, and K. Pfister. Nithiazide I. Chemical and biological studies on 1-ethyl-3-5-(5-nitro- 2-thiazolyl) urea and related compounds. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 92:483-485. 1956.
68. Cuckler, A. C., and C. M. Malanga. Nithiazide II. Effect on enterohepatitis in turkeys. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 92:485-488. 1956.
69. Cuckler, A. C., C. C. Porter, and W. H. Ott. Nithiazide. III. Tolerance studies in poultry. Poult. Sci. 36:529-536. 1957.
70. Curtis, C. Blackhead in turkeys. In: 17th Ann. Report of the State Board of Agriculture, State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Providence, RI. pp. 287-296. 1902.
71. Curtis, C. The rearing and management of turkeys, with special reference to the blackhead disease. Bulletin 123, Agricultural Experiment Station, Rhode Island College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Kingston, RI. pp. 5-64. 1907.
72. Curtis, C. Further experiments in connection with the blackhead disease in turkeys. Bulletin 124, Agricultural Experiment Station, Rhode Island College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Kingston, RI. pp. 67-105. 1907.
73. Cushman, S. The production of turkeys. Bulletin 25, Agricultural Experiment Station, Rhode Island College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts, Kingston, RI. pp. 89-123. 1893.
74. Davidson, W. R., G. L. Doster, and M. B. McGhee. Failure of Heterakis bonasae to transmit Histomonas melelagridis. Avian Dis. 22:627-632.
75. Dearstyne, R. S. When and why do they die? Turkey World. pp. 14, 62, 63. September 1945.
76. Delaplane, J. P., and H. O. Stuart. Cecal abligation of turkeys by the use of clamps in preventing entero-hepatitis (blackhead) infection. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 83:238-246. 1933.
77. Delappe, I. P. Studies on Histomonas meleagridis. I. Use of antibiotics to facilitate in vitro isolation. Exp. Parasitol. 2:79-86. 1953.
78. Delappe, I. P. Studies on Histomonas melelagridis. II. Influence of age of original inoculum and pH on growth in various media. Exp. Parasitol. 2:117-124. 1953.
79. Delappe, I. P. Studies on Histomonas melelagridis III. The influence of anaerobic versus aerobic environments on the growth of the organism in vitro. Exp. Parsitol. 2:209-222. 1953.
80. Delappe, I. P. Studies on Histomonas melelagridis. IV. A continuous automatic potentiometric method of measuring the Eh of protozoan cultures. Exp. Parasitol. 2:289-293. 1953.
81. Del Giudice, V. Su alcuni aspetti istopatologica della tiflo-epite dei gallinacei. Atti della Soc. Ital. Delle Sci. Vet. 8:488-490. 1954.
82. Deng, Z. B., S. F. Tong, K. Y. Chen, J. Cai, and Y. G. Zeng. Study on a method for experimental infection of histomoniasis. Chinese J. Vet. Sci. Technol. 26:28-29. 1996.
83. Desowitz, R. S. Age as a factor influencing fatal infections of histomoniasis in chickens. J. Comp. Pathol. 61:231-236. 1951.
84. Despotopoulos, A., P. Magkoutas, S. Grigoriadis, and A. Kampamanoli-Dimou. [Diseases of turkeys in Thessaly during the period 1970-1984]. Deltion tes Ellenikes Kteniatrikes Etaireias [Bull. Hellenic Vet. Med. Soc.] 37:107-116. 1986.
85. Devoir, H. M. A new medium for the cultivation of Histomonas meleagridis. J. Parasitol. 29:353-355. 1943.
86. DeVolt, H. M., and C. R. Davis. Blackhead (infectious enterohepatitis) in turkeys, with notes on other intestinal protozoa. Bulletin 392, Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Maryland, College Park, MD. pp. 493-567. 1936.
87. Dexter, E. d'H., and K. M. Lowndes. Avian disease diagnoses in the Republic of Ireland 1972-1973. Veterinary Services Bulletin, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Ireland. 4:13-25. 1974
88. Dhillon, A. S. Histomoniasis in a captive gteat rhea (Rhea americana). J. Wildl. Dis. 19:274. 1983.
89. Dhillon, A. S., R. W. Winterfield, H. L. Thacker, and L. J. Alby. Histomoniasis in bobwhite quail. Poult. Sci. 58:1050-1051. 1979.
90. Doyle, T. M. Infectious enterohepatitis or blackhead of turkeys. J. Ministry Agriculture London 36:349-352. 1929
91. Drbohlav, J. J. The cultivation of the protozoan of blackhead. J. Med. Res. 44:677-678. 1924.
92. Durant, A. J. The control of blackhead in turkeys by cecal abligation. North. Am. Vet. 10:52-55. 1929.
93. Durant, A. J. Infectious enterohepatitis. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. J. 90:596-607. 1930.
94. Dwyer, D. M. An improved method for cultivating Histomonas meleagridis. J. Parasitol. 56:192-193. 1970.
95. Dwyer, D. M. Immunologic analysis by gel diffusion of effects of prolonged culitivation on Histomonas meleagridis (Smith). J. Protozool. 18:372-377. 1971.
96. Dwyer, D. M. Analysis of antigenic relationships among Trichomonas, Histomonas, Dientamoeba and Entamoeba. I. Quantitative fluorescent-antibody methods. J. Protozool. 19:318-327. 1972
97. Dwyer, D. M. Analysis of antigenic relationships among Trichomonas, Histomonas, Dientamoeba, and Entamoeba II. Gel-diffusion methods. J. Protozool. 19:328-334. 1972.
98. Dwyer, D. M. Analysis of antigenic relationships among Trichomonas, Histomonas, Dientamoeba and Entamoeba. III. Immunoelectrophoresis techniques. J. Protozool. 21:139-145. 1974.
99. Dwyer, D. M., and B. M. Honigberg. Effect of certain laboratory procedures on the virulence of Histomonas meleagridis for turkeys and chickens. J. Parasitol. 56:694-700. 1970.
100. Dwyer, D. M., and B. M. Honigberg. Immunologic analysis by qualitative fluorescent antibody methods of effects of prolonged cultivation on Histomonas meleagridis (Smith). Z. Parasitenk. 39:39-52. 1972.
101. Ellis, J. E., D. Cole, and D. Lloyd. Influence of oxygen on the fermentative metabolism of metronidazole-sensitive and resistant strains of Trichomonas vaginalis. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 56:79-88. 1992.
102. Enigk, K. Die atiologie der blindarm-lebrentzundung der huhnervogel (blackhead) Arch. Wiss. Prakt. Tierheilkde 69:410-438. 1935.
103. Enigk, K. Zur Behandlung der Blinddarm-Leberentzundung der Hunervogel (Blackhead) [Treatment of cecal and liver inflammation of the fowl]. Tier. Rundschau 42:406-407. 1936.
104. Eriksen, S. Blackhead in chicks. Poult. Sci. 4:250-255. 1925.
105. Esquenet, C., P. De Herdt, H. De Bosschere, S. Ronsmans, R. Ducatelle, and J. Van. An outbreak of histomoniasis in free-range layer hens. Avian Pathol. 32:305-308. 2003.
106. Fabiyi, J. P. Coping with parasitic diseases in poultry in Nigeria. II. Protozoan diseases other than coccidiosis. Nigerian Livestock Farmer 4:12-15. 1984.
107. Farmer, R. K., and J. Stephenson. Infectious enterohepatitis (blackhead) in turkeys: a comparative study of methods of infection. J. Comp. Path. Ther. 59:119-127. 1949.
108. Farr, M. Further observations on survival of the protozoan parasite Histomonas melelagridis and eggs of poultry nematodes in feces of infected birds. Cornell Vet. 51:3-13. 1961.
109. Fine, P. E. M. Quantitative studies on transmission of Parahistomonas wenrichi by ova of Heterakis gallinarum. Parasitology 70:407-417. 1975.
110. Fine, P. E. M. Does Parahistomonas wenrichi affect the fertility of Heterakis gallinarum? J. Parasitol. 65:320-321. 1979.
111. Flowers, A. I., C. F. Hall, and L. C. Grumbles. Chemotherapy of histomoniasis of turkeys. I. Value of 1-2-dimethyl-5-nitroimidazole in treatment. Avian Dis. 9:394-406. 1965.
112. Frank, J. F. A note on the experimental transmission of enterohepatitis of turkeys by arthropods. Can. J. Comp. Med. 17:230-232. 1953.
113. Franker, C. K., and J. P. Doll. Experimental histomoniasis in gnotobiotic turkeys. II. Effects of some cecal bacteria on pathogenesis. J. Parasitol. 50:636-640. 1964.
114. Ganapathy, K., M. H. Salamat, C. C. Lee, and M. Y. Johara. Concurrent occurrence of salmonellosis, colibaccillosis and histomoniasis in a broiler flock fed with antibiotic-free commercial feed. Avian Pathol. 29:639-642. 2000.
115. Gaucher, D., and K. Chadee. Prospect for an Entamoeba histolytica Gal-lectin-based vaccine. Parasite Immunol. 25:55-58. 2003.
116. Gerbod, D., V. P. Edgcomb, C. Noel, L. Zenner, R. Wintjens, P. Delgado-Viscogliosi, M. E. Holder, M. L. Sogin, and E. Viscogliosi. Phylogenetic position of the trichomonad parasite of turkeys, Histomonas meleagridis (Smith) Tyzzer, inferred from small subunit rRNA sequence. J. Eukaryotic Microbiol. 48:498-504. 2001.
117. Gerth, C., B. Rudiger-Boesch, U. Schmidt, J. Mumme, and K. T. Friedhoff. Histomoniasis in a flock of young hens and its effect on egg laying. Tierarztliche Praxis 14:519-527. 1985.
118. Gibbs, B. J. Occurrence of protozoan parasite Histomonas meleagridis in adults and eggs of cecal worm Heterakis gallinae. J. Protozool. 9:288-293. 1962.
119. Gitao, C. G., and L. C. Bebora. Histomoniasis in a peafowl (Pavo cristatus). Indian Vet. J. 69:944-945. 1992.
120. Goedbloed, E., and P. H. Bool. The protozoan etiology of blackhead. Avian Dis. 6:302-315. 1962.
121. Graybill, H. W. The incidence of blackhead and occurrence of Heterakis papillota in a flock of artificially reared turkeys. J. Exp. Med. 33:667-673. 1921.
122. Graybill, H. W., and T. Smith. Production of fatal blackhead in turkeys by feeding embryonated eggs of Heterakis papillosa. J. Exp. Med. 31:647-655. 1920.
123. Grumbles, L. C., W. A. Boney, and R. D. Turk. Chemotherapy of enterohepatitis of turkeys. I. The value of 2-amino-5-nitrothiazole in prevention and treatment. Am. J. Vet. Res. 13:383-385. 1952.
124. Grumbles, L. C., W. A. Boney, and R. D. Chemotherapy of enterohepatitis of turkeys. II. The effect of 2-amino-5-nitrothiazole and 2- acetylaminonitrothiazole on egg production, fertility and hatchability in turkey hens. Am. J. Vet. Res. 13:386-387. 1952.
125. Grumbles, L. C., W. A. Boney, and R. D. Chemotherapy of enterohepatitis of turkeys. III. Comparative value of 2-amino-5-nitrothiazole and 2-aceetylaminonitrothiazole in prevention and treatment. Am. J. Vet. Res. 13:572-574. 1952.
126. Guerden, L. M. G. Uber aetiologie en behandeling van black head. Vlaams Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift 12:27-30. 1943.
127. Hadley, P. B. The rearing of turkeys with special reference to the blackhead disease Extension Bull. 2, Agricultural Experiment Station, Rhode Island State College, Kingston, RI. 20 pp. 1916.
128. Hadley, P. B. The role of the flagellated protozoa in infective processes of the intestines and liver. Bulletin 166, Agricultural Experiment Station, Rhode Island State College, Kingston, RI. 40 pp. + 3 pl. 1916.
129. Hadley, P. B. The avenue and development of tissue-infection in intestinal trichomoniasis. Bulletin 168, Agricultural Experiment Station, Rhode Island State College, Kingston, RI. 64 pp. + 11 pl. 1916.
130. Hadley, P. B. Trichomonas and blackhead in turkeys. Am. Naturalist 54:176-181. 1920.
131. Hadley, P. B., and E. E. Amison. Further studies on blackhead in turkeys. Zent. Bakt. 58:34-41. 1911.
132. Hafez, H. M., R. Hauck, D. Lüschow, and L. McDougald. Comparison of the specificity and sensitivity of PCR, nested PCR and real-time PCR for the diagnosis of histomoniasis. Avian Dis. 49:366-370. 2005.
133. Hafez, H. M., A. Mazaheri, C. Prusas, K. Bohland, M. Poppel, and D. Schulze. Actual infectious diseases in layer flocks kept in alternative rearing systems. Tierarztliche Praxis 29:168-174. 2001.
134. Halasa, M. [The problem of blackhead in turkeys]. Veterinarstvi 11:331-332. 1959.
135. Harrison, A. P., Jr., P. A. Hansen, H. M. DeVolt, A. P. Holst, and F. G. Tromba. Studies on the pathogenesis of infectious enterohepatitis (blackhead) of turkeys. Poult. Sci. 33:84-93. 1954.
136. Hauck, R., D. Luschow, and H. M. Hafez. Detection of Histomonas melelagridis-DNA in different organs after natural and experimental infections of meat turkeys. Avian Dis. In press. 2006.
137. Hegngi, F. N., J. Doperr, T. S. Cummings, R. D. Schwartz, G. Saunders, A. Zajac, C. T. Larsen, and F. W. Pierson. The effectiveness of benzimidazole derivatives for the treatment and prevention of histomonosis (blackhead) in turkeys. Vet. Parasitol. 81:29-37. 1999.
138. Heijden, H. M, L. R. McDougald, and W. J. M. Landman. High yield of parasites and prolonged in vitro culture of Histomonas meleagridis. Avian Pathol. In press. 2005.
139. Herman, S. M., and W. J. Bacha. Growth, development, and site location of the trematode Himasthla quissetensis in the chick following cloacal drop infections with cercariae. J. Parasitol. 64:827-830. 1978.
140. Higgens, C. H. Entero-hepatitis or blackhead in turkeys. Bull. 17, Dominion of Canada, Department of Agricultural, Health of Animals Branch, Ottawa. 11 pp. + 5 pl. 1915.
141. Hinshaw, W. R. Diseases of Turkeys. Bulletin 613, University of California College of Agriculture, Berkeley, CA. 112 pp. 1937.
142. Hirsch, R. P. Dynamics of protozoan population density, plasma glutamic oxalacetic transaminase and plasma bilirubin concentrations during histomoniasis in turkeys. Int. J. Parasitol. 9:395-399. 1979.
143. Homer, B. L., and G. D. Butcher. Histomoniasis in leghorn pullets on a Florida farm. Avian Dis. 35:621-624. 1991.
144. Honigberg, B. M., and B. M. Dwyer. Maintenance of Histomonas meleagridis in liquid nitrogen. J. Protozool. 16(Suppl.):18-19. 1969.
145. Honigberg, B. M., and J. Kuldova. Structure of a nonpathogenic histomonad from the cecum of galliform birds and revision of the trichomonad family Monocercomonadidae Kirby. J. Protozool. 16:526-535. 1969.
146. Horton-Smith, C., and P. L. Long. The infection of chickens (Gallus gallus) with suspensions of the blackhead organism Histomonas meleagridis. Vet. Rec. 67:478. 1955.
147. Houpt, E., L. Barroso, L. Lockhart, R. Wright, C. Cramer, D. Lyerly, and W. A. Petri. Prevention of intestinal amebiasis by vaccination with the Entamoeba histolytica Gal/GalNac lectin. Vaccine 22:611-617. 2004.
148. Hu, J., L. Fuller, P. L. Armstrong, and L. R. McDougald. Histomoniasis in chickens: attempted transmission in absence of vectors. Avian Dis. In press. 2006.
149. Hu, J., L. Fuller, and L. R. McDougald. Infection of turkeys with Histomonas meleagridis by the cloacal drop method. Avian Dis. 48:746-750. 2004.
150. Hu, J., L. Fuller, and L. R. McDougald. Blackhead disease in turkeys: direct transmission of Histomonas meleagridis from bird to bird in a laboratory model. Avian Dis. 49:328-331. 2005.
151. Hu, J., and L. R. McDougald. Effect of anticoccidials and antibiotics on the control of blackhead disease in broiler breeder pullets. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 11:351-357. 2002.
152. Hu, J., and L. R. McDougald. Direct lateral transmission of Histomonas meleagridis in turkeys. Avian Dis. 47:489-492. 2003.
153. Hu, J., and L. R. McDougald. The efficacy of some drugs with known antiprotozoal activity against Histomonas meleagridis in chickens. Vet. Parasitol. 121:233-238. 2004.
154. Huang, A. Pathological observations of histomoniasis in broilers. Chinese J. Vet. Med. 26:16-20. 2000.
155. Huber, K., C. Chauve, and L. Zenner. Detection of Histomonas meleagridis in turkeys cecal droppings by PCR amplification of the small subunit ribosomal DNA sequence. Vet. Parasitol. 131:311-316. 2005.
156. Hudson, C. B., and J. A. Pino. Physiological disturbance of the reproductive system in white leghorn cockerels following the feeding of enheptin. Poult. Sci. 31:1017-1022. 1952.
157. Hungerford, I. G. Blackhead in chickens. Agricultural Gazette 48:647-651. 1937.
158. Hungerford, I. G. Enterohepatitis or blackhead in poultry. Agricultural Gazette, New South Wales 51:52-54. 1940.
159. Ilyushechkin, Y. P., G. A. Mikhailov, M. F. Perov, and L. S. Shigoreva. Nucleic acid and protein synthesis in the organs and free amino acids in the blood of turkey chicks with histomoniasis. Sbornik Nauchnykh Trudov Vsesoyuznogo Nauchno-Issledovatel'skogo I Teknologicheskogo Instuta Ptitsevodstva 49:110-114. 1980
160. Ippen, R. Zur typhlohepatitis der zoovögel [Typhlohepatitis (histomoniasis) in zoo birds]. Proc. International Symposium on Diseases of Zoo Animals, Vienna. pp. 135-138. 1983.
161. Ivanics, F., R. Glavits, F. Ratz, and Z. Szelenyi. Histomonadosis el'fordulása házityúkban [Histomoniasis in fowls]. Magyar Állatorvosok Lapja 39:562-566. 1984.
162. Jaquette, D. S., and S. J. Marsden. Tests with mapharsen and metachloridine in the treatment of blackhead in turkeys. Poult. Sci. 26:218-219. 1947
163. Javed, T., M. Siddique, and M. Z. Khan. Outbreak of histomoniasis in a chicken flock. Pakistan Vet. J. 7:119-120. 1987.
164. Jersted, A. C. Furazolidone for infectious enterohepatitis (blackhead) of turkeys. Am. J. Vet. Res. 18:174-179. 1957.
165. Jowett, W. "Blackhead" (infectious entero-hepatitis or typhlo-hepatitis): a disease of young turkeys. Agricultural J. Union S. Africa, Pretoria 2:5. 1911.
166. Joyner, L. P. Immunity to histomoniasis in turkeys following treatment with dimetridazole. J. Comp Path. Ther. 73:201-207. 1963.
167. Kalia, M. L. Histomoniasis (entero-hepatitis in indigenous fowls. Indian Vet. J. 35:105-107. 1958.
168. Kegeyan, A. S. Study of Histomonas melelagridis, Tyzzer in turkeys and chickens in Armenia. Materialy II Vsesoyuznogo S'ezda Protozoologov. Chast'3. Veterinarnaya protozoologiya. P. 50. 1976.
169. Kemp, R. L. Failure of Histomonas meleagridis to establish in germfree ceca in normal poults. Avian Dis. 18:452-455. 1974.
170. Kemp, R. L. and J. C. Franson. Transmission of Histomonas meleagridis to domestic fowl by means of earthworms recovered from pheasant yard soil. Avian Dis. 19:741-744. 1975.
171. Kemp, R. L., and W. M. Reid. Studies on the etiology of blackhead disease: the roles of Histomonas meleagridis and Candida albicans in the Unites States. Poult. Sci. 45:1296-1302. 1966.
172. Kemp, R. L., and W. M. Reid. Staining techniques for differential diagnosis of histomoniasis and mycosis in domestic poultry. Avian Dis. 10:357-363. 1966.
173. Kendall, S. B. The occurrence of Histomonas meleagridis in Heterakis gallinae. Parasitology 49:169-172. 1959.
174. Koncicki, A., A. Krasnodebska-Depta, and S. Guiro. Hematological and biochemical studies in an outbreak of histomoniasis in turkeys. Medycyna Weternaryjna 55:674-676. 1999.
175. Krijgsman, O. Blackhead. In: Handbuch der Geflugelkrankheiten und der Geflugelzucht. T. van Heelsbergen, ed. Ferdinand Enke, Stuttgart, pp. 348-360. 1929.
176. Kubo, M., and Y. Kodama. Electron microscopic observations on the liver and ceca of fighting chickens with histomoniasis. J. Japan. Vet. Med. Assoc. 42:194-196. 1989.
177. Kuprowski, M. Entero-hepatitis infectiosa u indykow na terenie woj. Wroclawskiego. Medycyna Weterynaryjna 6:461-463. 1951.
178. Kuprowski, M. Badania histo-patologiczne nad zakaznym zapaleniem jelit slepych i watroby u indykow (typhlo-hepatitis infectiosa). Medycyna Weterynaryjna 10:136-139. 1954.
179. Kuprowski, M. Badania histopatologiezne nad zakaznym zapaleniem jelit slepychi i watroby indykow (typhlo-hepatitis infectiosa). Roczniki Nauk Rolniczych 67:69-103. 1955.
180. Kuprowski, M. O moniliazie u gluscow i o entero-hepatitis. Mecycyna Weterynaryjna 12:201-204. 1956.
181. Kuprowski, M. Zur pathogenese und morphologie der moniliasis der Hunervogel [Pathogenesis and morphology of moniliasis of fowl]. Deutsche Tierarztlich Wochenschrift 67:185-189. 1960.
182. Laidlaw, P. P., C. Dobell, and A. Bishop. Further experiments on the action of emetine in cultures of Entamoeba histolytica. Parasitology 20:207-220. 1928.
183. Larsen, I. W. Biological aspects of enterohepatitis in fowl relative to Histomonas meleagridis and Heterakis gallinarum. Ph.D. Dissertation, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS. 129 pp. 1964.
184. Larsen, I. W., and M. F. Hansen. Susceptibility of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) to Heterakis gallinarum and Histomonas meleagridis. Poult. Sci. 45:1430-1432. 1966.
185. Leal, O. P. Enterepatite dos perus. Lavoura e Criacao, pp. 9-11. 1961.
186. Lee, D. L. Structure and development of Histomonas meleagridis in its vector Heterakis gallinarum (Nematoda). Parasitology 59:877-884. 1969.
187. Lee, D. L. The structure and development of the protozoon Histomonas meleagridis in the male reproductive tract of its intermediate host, Heterakis gallinarum (Nematoda). Parasitology 63:439-445. 1971.
188. Lee, D. L., P. L. Long, B. J. Millard, and J. Bradley. Fine structure and method of feeding of tissue parasitizing stages of Histomonas meleagridis. Parasitology 59:171-184. 1969.
189. Lesser, E. Replacement of serum in the cultivation of Histomonas melelagridis. J. Parasitol. 46:271. 1960.
190. Lesser, E. Cultivation of Histomonas melelagridis in a modified tissue culture medium. J. Parasitol. 46:686. 1960.
191. Lesser, E. In vitro cultivation of Histomonas meleagridis free of demonstrable bacteria. J. Protozool. 8:228-230. 1961.
192. Lesser, E. Effect of amphotericin-B on in vitro growth of Histomonas melelagridis. J. Parasitol. 49:329. 1963.
193. Lesser, E. Studies on the in vitro growth of Histomonas melelagridis with single species of bacteria. Helm. Soc. Wash. 31:265-266. 1964.
194. Lesser, E. Studies on the in vitro cultivation of Histomonas melelagridis with three different mixed bacterial flora. Helm. Soc. Wash. 31:263-264. 1964.
195. Levine, P. P. Histomoniasis in a kidney of a turkey. Cornell Vet. 37:269-270. 1947.
196. Lindquist, W. D. Some effects of paromomycin sulfate on blackhead in turkeys. Am. J. Vet. Res. 23:1053-1056. 1962.
197. Little, R. M., R. A. Earle, T. M. Crowe, and F. W. Huchzermeyer. Mortality caused by histomoniasis in young Greywing Francolin. S. Afr. J. Wildlife. Res. 23:57-58. 1993.
198. Loftus, B., I. Anderson, R. Davies, U. C. M. Alsmark, J. Samuelson, P. Amedeo, P. Roncaglia, M. Berriman, R. P. Hirt, B. J. Mann, T. Nozaki, B. Suh, M. Pop, M. Duchene, J. Ackers, E. Tannich, M. Leippe, M. Hofer, I. Bruchhaus, U. Willhoeft, A. Bhattacharya, T. Chillingworth, C. Churcher, Z. Hance, B. Harris, D. Harris, K. Jagels, S. Moule, K. Mungall, D. Ormond, R. Squares, S. Whitehead, M. A. Quail, E. Rabbinowitsch, H. Norbertczak, K. Price, Z. Wang, N. Guillén, C. Gilchrist, S. E. Stroup, S. Bhattacharya, A. Lohia, P. G. Foster, T. Sicheritz-Ponten, C. Weber, U. Singh, C. Mukherjee, N. M. El-Sayed, W. A. Petri, Jr., C. G. Clark, T. M. Embley, B. Barrell, C. M. Fraser, and N. Hall. The genome of the protist parasite Entamoeba histolytica. Nature 433:865-868. 2005.
199. Lucas, A. L., M. Toucas, M. LaRoche, and L. Monein. Histomonose de la Perdrix (enterohepatite). Rec. Med. Vet. (France) 132:527-531. 1956.
200. Lucas, J. M. S., and J. Goose. Tests for activity against Histomonas meleagridis: use of the infection in chickens and a comparison of the results obtained in chickens and turkeys. Brit. Vet. J. 121:65-75. 1965.
201. Lund, E. E. The progress of histomoniasis (blackhead) in turkeys as related to the size of the infective dose. Poult. Sci. 30:127-130. 1955.
202. Lund, E. E. Oral transmission of histomoniasis in turkeys. Poult. Sci. 35:900-904. 1956.
203. Lund, E. E. Immunizing action of a nonpathogenic strain of Histomonas against blackhead in turkeys. J. Protozool. 6:182-185. 1959.
204. Lund, E. E. Histomonas wenrichi n. sp. (Mastigophora: Mastigamoebidae), a nonpathogenic parasite of gallinaceous birds. J. Protozool. 10:401-404. 1963.
205. Lund, E. E. Acquired resistance to experimental Heterakis infections in chickens and turkeys: effect on the transmission of Histomonas meleagridis. J. Helminthol. 41:55-62. 1967.
206. Lund, E. E. Response of four breeds of chickens and one breed of turkeys to experimental Heterakis and Histomonas infections. Avian Dis. 11:491-502. 1967.
207. Lund, E. E. Histomoniasis. In: Adv. Vet. Sci. Comp. Med., Vol. 13. Academic Press, Inc., New York. pp. 355-390. 1969.
208. Lund, E. E. Histomonas meleagridis and H. wenrichi: time of acquisition by Heterakis gallinarum. Exp. Parasitol. 29:59-65. 1971.
209. Lund, E. E., P. C. Augustine, and A. M. Chute. Histomonas meleagridis after 1000 in vitro passages. J. Protozool. 14:349-351. 1967.
210. Lund, E. E., P. C. Augustine, and D. J. Ellis. Immunizing action of in wire-attenuated Histomonas meleagridis in chickens and turkeys. Exp. Parasitol. 18:403-407. 1966.
211. Lund, E. E., and R. H. Burtner. Infectivity of Heterakis gallinae eggs with Histomonas meleagridis. Exp. Parasitol. 6:189-193. 1957.
212. Lund, E. E., and A. M. Chute. Infectivity of Histomonas meleagridis of cecal and liver origins compared. J. Protozool. 17:284-287. 1970.
213. Lund, E. E., and A. M. Chute. Relative importance of young and mature turkeys and chickens in contaminating soil with Histomonas-bearing Heterakis eggs. Avian Dis. 14:342-348. 1970.
214. Lund, E. E., and A. M. Chute. Bobwhite, Colinus virginianus, as host for Heterakis and Histomonas. J. Wildl. Dis. 7:70-75. 1971.
215. Lund, E. E., and A. M. Chute. Histomoniasis in the Chukar partridge. J. Wildl. Mgt. 35:307-315. 1971.
216. Lund, E. E., and A. M. Chute. Heterakis and Histomonas infections in young peafowl compared to such infections in pheasants, chickens and turkeys. J. Wildl Dis. 8:352-358. 1972.
217. Lund, E. E., and A. M. Chute. Potential of young and mature Guinea fowl in contaminating soil with Histomonas-bearing heterakid eggs. Avian Dis. 16:1079-1086. 1972.
218. Lund, E. E., and A. M. Chute. Reciprocal responses of eight species of galliform birds and three parasites: Heterakis gallinarum, Histomonas meleagridis and Parahistomonas wenrichi. J. Parasitol. 58:940-945. 1972.
219. Lund, E. E., and A. M. Chute. The ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus torquatus) as a host for Heterakis gallinarum and Histomonas meleagridis. Am. Mid. Nat. 87:1-7. 1972.
220. Lund, E. E., and A. M. Chute. Means of acquisition of Histomonas meleagridis by eggs of Heterakis gallinarum. Parasitology 66:335-342. 1973
221. Lund, E. E., and A. M. Chute. Reciprocal transfer of Heterakis gallinarum larvae between chickens and Chukar Partridges: effects on H. gallinarum, Histomonas meleagridis, and Parahistomonas wenrichi. Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash. 40:153-157. 1973.
222. Lund, E. E., and A. M. Chute. Reciprocal transfer of Heterakis gallinarum larvae between ring-neck pheasants and Japanese quail: effects on H. gallinarum, Histomonas meleagridis, and Parahistomonas wenrichi. Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash. 41:73-76. 1974.
223. Lund, E. E., and A. M. Chute. The reproductive potential of Heterakis gallinarum in various species of galliform birds: implications for survival of H. gallinarum and Histomonas meleagridis to recent times. Int. J. Parasitol. 4:455-461. 1974
224. Lund, E. E., A. M. Chute, and M. E. L. Vernon. 1974. Experimental infections with Histomonas meleagridis and Heterakis gallinarum in ducks and geese. J. Parasitol. 60:683-686. 1974.
225. Lund, E. E., and D. J. Ellis. The Japanese quail, Coturnix coturnix japonica, as a host for Heterakis and Histomonas. Lab. Anim. Care 17:110-113. 1967.
226. Lund, E. E., E. E. Wehr, and D. J. Ellis. Earthworm transmission of Heterakis and Histomonas to turkeys and chickens. J. Parasitol. 52:899-902. 1966.
227. Malewitz, T. D., and L. Calhoun. The normal hematological picture of turkey poults and blood alterations caused by enterohepatitis. Am. J. Vet. Res. 18:396-399. 1957.
228. Malewitz, T. D., R. A. Runnels, and L. Calhoun. The pathology of experimentally produced histomoniasis in turkeys. Am. J. Vet. Res. 19:181-185. 1958.
229. Manuel, M. F., and V. A. Guerzon. Survey on the occurrence of Histomonas meleagridis in locally raised domestic quails (Coturnix coturnix Japonicum). Philippine J. Vet. Med. 17:121-128. 1978.
230. Marsden, S. J., and D. S. Jaquette. Tests with mapharsen and metachloridine in the treatment of blackhead in turkeys. Poult. Sci. 26:218-219. 1947.
231. Marx, D. J. Turkey bursa of Fabricius infected with Histomonas meleagridis. J. Protozool. 20:519. 1973.
232. Mathis, G. F., L. R. McDougald, and L. Fuller. Elevated methemoglobin in the pathology of avian coccidia (Protozoa, Apicomplexa) and Histomonas (Protozoa, Sarcomastigophora). J. Parasitol. 70:838-839. 1984.
233. Mayall, G. Blackhead in turkeys. Brit. Vet. J. 89:482. 1933.
234. Mayaudon, T. H. Histomoniasis in birds. Ciencias Veterinarias, Mexico 5:658-661. 1976.
235. McDougald, L. R. Efficacy and compatibility of amprolium and carbarsone against coccidiosis and blackhead in turkeys. Poult. Sci. 58:76-80. 1979.
236. McDougald, L. R. Other protozoan diseases of the intestinal tract - histomoniasis (blackhead). In: Diseases of Poultry. Y. M. Saif, H. J. Barnes, J. R. Glisson, A. M. Fadly, L. R. McDougald, and D. E. Swayne eds. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA. pp. 1001-1006. 2003.
237. McDougald, L. R., and R. B. Galloway. Blackhead disease: in vitro isolation of Histomonas meleagridis as a potentially useful diagnostic aid. Avian Dis. 17:847-850. 1973.
238. McDougald, L. R., and M. F. Hansen. Serum protein changes in chickens subsequent to infection with Histomonas meleagridis. Avian Dis. 13:673-677. 1969.
239. McDougald, L. R., and M. F. Hansen. Histomonas meleagridis: effect on plasma enzymes in chickens and turkeys. Exp. Parasitol. 27:229-235. 1970.
240. McDougald, L. R., and J. Hu. Blackhead disease (Histomonas meleagridis) aggravated in broiler chickens by concurrent infection with cecal coccidiosis (Eimeria tenella). Avian Dis. 45:307-312. 2001.
241. McGreggor, J. K. Studies on the use of 2-amino-5-nitrothiazole in the control of enterohepatitis (blackhead) in turkeys. Am. J. Vet. Res. 13:108-109. 1952.
242. McGreggor, J. K. Preliminary observations on the use of certain nitrofuran compounds in the control of enterohepatitis (blackhead) in turkeys. JAVMA 122:312-314. 1953.
243. McGuire, W. C., and J. W. Cavett. Blood studies on histomoniasis in turkeys. Poult. Sci. 31:610-617. 1952.
244. McGuire, W. C., M. W. Moeller, and N. F. Morehouse. The effect of dimetridazole on the growth and prevention of histomoniasis in poultry. Poult. Sci. 43:864-871. 1964.
245. McGuire, W. C., and N. F. Morehouse. Blood-induced blackhead. J. Parasitol. 44:292-296. 1952.
246. McGuire, W. C., and N. F. Morehouse. Chemotherapy studies of histomoniasis. Poult. Sci. 31:603-609. 1952.
247. McGuire, W. C., and N. F. Morehouse. Blood-induced blackhead. J. Parasitol. 44:292-296. 1958.
248. McKay, F., and N. F. Morehouse. Studies on experimental blackhead infection in turkeys. J. Parasitol. 34:137-141. 1948.
249. Meng, Z. J. Mixed infection of partridges with Histomonas and Cryptosporidium. Chinese J. Vet. Med. 22:24-26. 1997.
250. Menzani, C. Osservazioni e ricerche su l'entero-epatite infettiva del tacchini. Clin. Vet. (Milano) 56:508-531. 1933.
251. Menzani, C. Il Blastocystis e l'eziologia del black-head. Clin. Vet. (Milano) 62:12-21. 1939.
252. Merdivenci, A. [Cases of histomoniasis seen in turkeys on sale in markets in Istanbul]. Veteriner. Hekimler Dernegi Dergisi 44:185-188. 1974
253. Mesa, C. P., R. M. Stabler, and M. Berthrong. Histopathological changes in domestic pigeon infected with Trichomonas gallinae (Jones barn strain). Avian Dis. 5:48-60. 1961.
254. Milks, H. J. A preliminary report on some diseases of chickens. Louisiana Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 108. pp. 3-11. 1908.
255. Mitrovic, M, and E. G. Schildknecht. Antihistomonal activity of 1,2-disubstituted 5-nitroimidazoles. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother. 8:445-448. 1968.
256. Mitrovic, M., and E. G. Schildknecht. Antihistomonal activity of ipronidazole in turkeys. Poult. Sci. 69:86-92. 1970.
257. Mitsiadi, M, V. Cozma, and C. Magdas. Epidemiology of parasitic diseases in turkeys bred in farms from Romania and Greece. Buletinul Universitǎtii de Stiinte Agricole si Medicinǎ Veterinarǎ Cluj-Napoca, Seria Medicinǎ Veterinarǎ 60:274-279. 2003.
258. Muller, H. Enzootic typhlohepatitis in intensively kept pullets. Monatsch. Veterinarmed 45:464-467. 1990.
259. Muller, M. The hydrogenosome. J. Gen. Microbiol. 139:2879-2889. 1993.
260. Nasirudeen, A. M. A., Y. E. Hian, M. Singh, and K. S. W. Tan. Metronidazole induces programmed cell death in the protozoan parasite Blastocystis hominis. Microbiol. SGM 150:33-43. 2004.
261. Nechay, B. R., S. Boyrsky, and P. Catacutan-Labay. Rapid migration of urine into intestine of chickens. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 26:369-370. 1968.
262. Niimi, D. [On the outbreak of blackhead in Japan]. Japan. J. Vet. Sci. 9:256-263. 1930.
263. Niimi, D. [Studies on blackhead. I. Morphology, development and pathogenicity of causal agent in body of host]. Japan. J. Vet. Sci. 15:58-119. 1936.
264. Niimi, D. [Studies on blackhead II. Mode of infection]. Japan. J. Vet. Sci. 16:183-239. 1937.
265. Niimi, D. [Studies on blackhead. III. Test of surgical operation, immunology and chemotherapy]. Japan. J. Vet. Sci. 17:18-57. 1938.
266. Norton, R. A., F. D. Clark, and J. N. Beasley. An outbreak of histomoniasis in turkeys infected with a moderate level of Ascaridia dissimilis but no Heterakis gallinarum. Avian Dis. 43:342-348. 1999.
267. Ohara, T., and W. M. Reid. Histomoniasis in chickens: age of greatest susceptibility and pathogenicity studies. Avian Dis. 5:355-361. 1961.
268. Okaeme, A. N. Disease of young helmet guineafowl (Numida meleagis galeata, Pallas) under intensive management in Nigeria. Bull. Anim. Health and Production Africa 29:317-319. 1981.
269. Olsen, M. W., and E. A. Allen. Treatment of cecal and liver trichomoniasis in turkeys by fever therapy. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 45:298-302. 1940.
270. Ostlind, D. A., and M. F. Hansen. Effects of X-ray dosages on development of Heterakis gallinarum. Exp. Parasitol. 18:41-48. 1966.
271. Owen, R. W. The helminth parasites of domesticated birds in mid Wales. J. Helminthol. 25:105-130. 1951.
272. Palic, T., D. Orlic, B. Miljkovic, L. J. Stojiljkovic, Z. Rašic, J. Nikolovski, M. Šekler, R. Ignjatovic, and J. Dekic. Analysis of poultry health in Serbia between 1989 and 1998. Civinarstvo 33:81-90. 1998.
273. Pallaske, G. Zur histopathologie der enzootischen Blinddarm- Leberentzundung (blackhead) der Truthuhner [On the histopathology of enzootic cecal-liver inflammation (blackhead) of turkeys]. Tierartliche Umschau 4:298-302. 1949.
274. Park, J. W., M. H. Jun, S. W. Cho, and W. Y. Cho. Histomoniasis of Chuckar partridges in Korea: a case report. Korean J. Vet. Res. 32:235-238. 1992.
275. Peardon, D. L., and J. W. Ware. Atypical foci of histomoniasis lesions in a study of direct oral transmission. Avian Dis. 13:340-344. 1969.
276. Pesta, K. Histomonas infection of pheasants. Control and treatment. Polovnictvo a Rybarstvo, 36:7. 1984.
277. Peterson, E. H. Efficacy of 1-methyl-2-carbamoyloxymethyl-5- nitroimidazole against enterohepatitis in experimental poults. Poult. Sci. 47:1245-1250. 1968.
278. Petrochenko, V. I., and M. V. Protasevich. [Heterakis and Histomonas infection: prophylaxis of Histomonas melelagridis infections in turkeys by carrying out of control measures against Heterakis infection]. Trudy Vsesoyuznozo Inst. Gel'mintologii in K. I. Skryabina 16:117-180. 1970.
279. Picard, W. K. Blackhead vij kuikens [Blackhead in chickens]. Hemera zoa 41:449-456. 1929.
280. Pino, J. A., and C. B. Hudson. Duration of sexual retardation in S. C. white Leghorn pullets and cockerels following enheptin (2-amino, 5-nitrothiazole) feeding. Poult. Sci. 32:650-655. 1953.
281. Radi, Z. A. An epizootic of combined Clostridium perfringens, Eimneria sp. and Capillaria sp. Enteritis and Histomonas sp. hepatitis with Escherichia coli septicaemia in bobwhite quails (Colinus virginianus). Int. J. Poultry Sci. 3:438-441. 2004.
282. Raether, W., and H. Hänel. Nitroheterocyclic drugs with broad spectrum activity. Parasitol. Res. 90:19-39. 2003.
283. Reece, R. L., V. D. Beddome, and D. A. Barr. Diseases diagnosed in replacement layer and breeder chicken flocks in Victoria, Australia, 1977-1985. Vet. Rec. 19:471-475. 1986.
284. Reeves, R. E. Metabolism of Entamoeba histolytica Schaudinn (1903). Advances in Parasitol. 23:105-142. 1984
285. Reid, W. M. Etiology and dissemination of blackhead disease syndrome in turkeys and chickens. Exp. Parasitol. 21:249-275. 1967.
286. Reid, W. M., T. Ohara, and S. Kaduskar. Controlled experiments with nihydrazone as a blackhead preventive in broilers. Proc. 3rd Nat. Symposium on Nitrofurans in Agriculture. pp. 89-92. 1960.
287. Rettger, L. F., and W. F. Kirkpatrick. An epidemiological study of blackhead in turkeys. Bulletin 148, Storrs Agricultural Exp. Station, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT. pp. 287-313. 1927.
288. Roberts, F. H. S. A note on the occurrence of enterohepatitis or "blackhead" in chickens. Aust. Vet. J. 13:158-161. 1937.
289. Robin, K., L. Lobsiger, and K. Pfister. Parasitic diseases in tetraonids in the Bern zoo and preliminary results of selective control based on faecal egg counts. Tierarztliche Umschau 41:479-483. 1986.
290. Rozsa, J. Pulykak fertozo vakbel- es majgyulladasanak, valamint orsofergessegenek gyogykezelese Boraginnal [Treatment of infectious enterohepatitis (blackhead) and ascaridiosis of turkeys with boragin]. Magyar Allatorvosok Lapja 17:132-133. 1962.
291. Ruff, M. D., and M. F. Hansen. Effect of gamma radiation on pathogenicity of Histomonas meleagridis. Avian Dis. 14:646-653. 1970.
292. Ruff, M. D., and M. F. Hansen. Histomonas meleagridis - effect of gamma radiation on in-vitro growth. Exp. Parasitol. 28:450-464. 1970.
293. Ruff, M. D., L. R. McDougald, and M. F. Hansen. Isolation of Histomonas meleagridis from embryonated eggs of Heterakis galinarum. J. Protozool. 17:10-11. 1967.
294. Santos, J. A. Entero-hepitite dos perus [Enterohepatitis of turkeys]. Brazil Ministerio da Agricultura Boletim 33:123-126. 1944.
295. Sautter, J. H., B. S. Pomeroy, and M. H. Roepke. Histomoniasis (enterohepatitis) in turkeys. 1. A procedure for the screening and testing of drugs. Am. J Vet. Res. 11:115-119. 1950.
296. Savey, M., and R. Chermette. Histomoniasis in farm-raised chickens: Clinical report. Point Veterinaire 12:68-72. 1981.
297. Schiefer, B., and B. Mehnert. Untersuchungen zuer Aetiologie und Pathogenese der Typhlohepatitis der Huhnervogel [Research on the etiology and pathogenesis of typhlohepatitis in fowl]. Zentralblatt Veterinarmedizin 10:28-48. 1963.
298. Schotthauer, C. F., H. E. Essex, and F. C. Mann. Cecal occlusion in the prevention of blackhead (enterohepatitis) in turkeys. JAVMA 83:218-228. 1933.
299. Schulze, H. W. Uber das Auftreten von Schwarzkopfkrankheit bei Legehennenaufeuchten in Norddeutschland [Blackhead in pullet farms in North Germany]. Praktische Tierarzt 56:164-168. 1975.
300. Schuster, F. L. Ultrastructure of Histomonas meleagridis (Smith) Tyzzer, a parasitic amebo-flagellate. J. Parasitol. 54:725-737. 1968.
301. Shelton, G. C., and H. C. McDougle. Observations concerning the use of 1-methyl-2-carboxymethyl-5-nitroimidazole against experimentally induced histomoniasis in turkey poults. Poult Sci. 49:1077-1081. 1970.
302. Shivaprasaud, H. L., G. Senties-Cue, R. P. Chin, R. Crespo, B. Charlton, and G. Cooper. Blackhead in turkeys, a re-emerging disease? Proc. 4th International Symposium on Turkey Diseases, Berlin. Ed. H. M. Hafez. pp. 143-144. 2002.
303. Smith, T. An infectious disease among turkeys caused by Protozoa (infectious entero-hepatitis). USDA, Bur. Anim. Ind. Bull. 8:3-27. 1895.
304. Smith, T. A., and E. W. Smillie. Note on coccidia in sparrows and their assumed relation to blackhead in turkeys. J. Exp. Med. 25:415-420. 1917.
305. Sorvari, R., A. Naukkarinen, and T. E. Sorvari. Anal sucking-like movements in chicken and chick-embryo followed by transportation of environmental material to bursa of Fabricius, ceca and cecal tonsils. Poult. Sci. 56:1426-1429. 1977.
306. Spindler, L. A. Experimental transmission of Histomonas meleagridis and Heterakis gallinarum by the sow-bug, Porcellio scaber, and its implications for further research. Proc. Helminthol. Soc. Wash. 34:26-29. 1967.
307. Springer, W. T., J. Johnson, and W. M. Reid. Transmission of histomoniasis with male Heterakis gallinarum (Nematoda). Parasitology 59:401-405. 1969.
308. Springer, W. T., J. Johnson, and W. M. Reid. Histomoniasis in gnotiobiotic chickens and turkeys - biological aspects of role of bacteria in etiology. Exp. Parasitol. 28:383-392. 1970.
309. Stepkowski, S., and S. Klimont. Obserwacje nad hodowla in vitro Histomonas melelagridis (Smith, 1895) [Observations on the culture in vitro of Histomonas melelagridis (Smith, 1895)]. Medycyna Weterynaryjna 35:502-505. 1979.
310. Sullivan, T. W., O. D. Grace, and A. Aksoy. Influence of level, timing and duration of ronidazole water medication on histomoniasis in turkeys. Poultry Sci. 56:571-576. 1977.
311. Sullivan, T. W., R. J. Mitchell, and O. D. Grace. Prophylactic efficacy of nifursol against different levels of exposure to histomoniasis in turkeys 4 to 9 weeks of age. Poult. Sci. 51:1956-1959. 1972.
312. Svec, R. Studium prevencie a tlemina enteroheptitidy u moriek [Investigation of the prevention and suppression of enterohepatitis in turkeys]. Vet. Pr. Vysk. Ustavu Chov. Hydiny Ivanke Pri Dunaji 3:299-309. 1966.
313. Tachezy, J., L. B. Sanchez, and M. Muller. Mitochondrial type iron-sulfur cluster assembly in the amitochondriate eukaryotes Trichomonas vaginalis and Giardia intestinalis, as indicated by the phylogeny of IscS. Mol. Biol. Evol. 18:1919-1928. 2001.
314. Tezuka, A. Outbreak of histomoniasis (blackhead disease) of Ptarmigan. Japan. J. Vet. Sci. 32(Suppl.):110-111. 1970.
315. Thompson, J. J. Blackhead in pullets. N. Z. J. Agric. 87:437-438. 1953.
316. Thompson, N. P., and R. L. Emerman. Interaction of P, P′DDT with histomoniasis in bobwhites. Bull. Envir. Contam. Toxicol. 11:474-482. 1974.
317. Townson, S. M., J. A. Upcroft, and P. Upcroft. Characterization and purification of pyruvate : ferredoxin oxidoreductase from Giardia duodenalis. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 79:183-193. 1996.
318. Tsunoda, K, and T. Tateiwa. Studies on the control of enterohepatitis (blackhead) in peafowl chickens. Bull. NIAH (Japan) 35:791-812. 1958.
319. Tyzzer, E. E. The flagellate character and reclassification of the parasite producing "blackhead" in turkeys - Histomonas (gen. nov.) melelagridis (Smith). J. Parasitol. 6:124-131. 1920.
320. Tyzzer, E. E. Arsenical compounds in the treatment of blackhead in turkeys. J. Exp. Med. 37:851-873. 1923.
321. Tyzzer, E. E. The chicken as a carrier of Histomonas meleagridis (Blackhead): the protozoon in its flagellated state. J. Med. Res. 44:676-678. 1924.
322. Tyzzer, E. E. Heterakis vesicularis Frolich 1791: a vector of an infectious disease. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 23:708-709. 1926.
323. Tyzzer, E. E. Enterohepatitis in turkey and its transmission through the agency of Heterakis vesicularis. Proc. 3rd World's Poultry Congress, Toronto, Canada. pp.286-290. 1927.
324. Tyzzer, E. E. Loss of virulence in the protozoon of "blackhead, " a fatal disease of turkeys, and the immunizing properties of attenuated strains. Science 78:522-523. 1933.
325. Tyzzer, E. E. The immunizing properties of an attenuated strain of Histomonas meleagridis. J. Parasitol. 19:158. 1933.
326. Tyzzer, E. E. Studies on histomoniasis or blackhead infection, in the chicken and the turkey. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Sci. 69:189-264. 1934.
327. Tyzzer, E. E. A study of immunity produced by infection with attenuated culture strains of Histomonas meleagridis. J. Comp. Pathol. Ther. 49:285-303. 1936.
328. Tyzzer, E. E., and J. Collier. Induced and natural transmission of blackhead in the absence of Heterakis. J. Infect. Dis. 37:265-276. 1925.
329. Tyzzer, E. E., and F. Fabyan. Further studies on "blackhead" in turkeys, with special reference to transmission by inoculation. J. Infect. Dis. 27:207-239. 1920.
330. Tyzzer, E. E., and F. Fabyan. Practical suggestions for raising turkeys. Dept. Bull. 15, Massachusetts Department Agric., 31 pp. + 32 pl. 1922.
331. Tyzzer, E. E., M. Fayban, and N. C. Foot. Further observations on "blackhead" in turkeys. J. Infect. Dis. 29:268-286. 1921.
332. Upcroft, P., and J. A. Upcroft. Drug targets and mechanisms of resistance in the anaerobic protozoa. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 14:150-164. 2001.
333. Vatne, R. D., R. R. Baron, and N. F. Morehouse. Histomonastatic activity of nifursol in turkeys. Poult. Sci. 48:590-596. 1969.
334. Vatne, R. D., R. R. Baron, and N. F. Morehouse. Histomonastatic activity of nifursol in chickens. Poult. Sci. 48:2157-2160. 1969.
335. Venkataratnam, A., and M. J. Clarkson. The effect of histomoniasis on the blood cells of the fowl. Res. Vet. Sci. 4:603-607. 1963.
336. Wakelin, D. A survey of the intestinal helminthes parasitic in British domestic fowl. J. Helminthol. 38:191-200. 1964
337. Waters, C. V., L. D. Hall, W. R. Davidson, E. A. Rollor III, and K. A. Lee. Status of commercial and non-commercial chickens as potential sources of histomoniasis among wild turkeys. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 22:43-49. 1994.
338. Wedgeforth, H. M., and P. Wedgeforth. Observations on the effect of ipecac in the treatment of infectious enterohepatitis (blackhead) in turkeys. J. Pharm Exp. Ther. 17:249-259. 1921.
339. Wehr, E. E. Blackhead of turkeys primarily transmitted through cecal worm eggs. J. Parasitol. 40(Sec. 2):26. 1954.
340. Wehr, E. E., and L. G. Oliver. Limitations of phenothiazine in the control of cecal worms and blackhead disease of turkeys. Poult. Sci. 25:199-203. 1946.
341. Welch, D. E., and R. D. Vatne. The preparation and histomonastatic activity of some haloethylimidazoles. J. Med. Chem. 11:370-371. 1968.
342. Welter, C. J. The effect of various stresses upon histomoniasis in chickens and turkeys. Poult. Sci. 39:361-366. 1960.
343. Welter, C. J., and D. T. Clark. Efficacy of p-ureidobenzenearsonic acid as a preventive of histomoniasis in turkey poults. Poult. Sci. 40:144-147. 1961.
344. Wenrich, D. H. Observations on the morphology of Histomonas (Protozoa, Mastigophora) from pheasants and chickens. J. Morphol. 72:279-303. 1943.
345. Wetzel, R., and K. Enigk. Zur Aetiologie der Blinddarm-Leberentzundung der Huhnervogel (Blackhead) [On the etiology of the cecal-liver inflammation of fowl "blackhead"]. Proc. 13th Int. Tierarztl. Kongress, Zurich, pp. 856-862. 1938.
346. Whitmore, J. H., T. W. Sullivan, and O. D. Grace. Prophylactic efficacy of vitamin A and certain compounds against histomoniasis in turkeys. Poult. Sci. 47:159-164. 1968.
347. Whitmore, J. H., T. W. Sullivan, and O. D. Grace. Prophylactic efficacy of 1-methyl-2-carbomoyloxymethyl-5-nitroimidazole against histomoniasis in young turkeys. Poultry Sci. 47:428-430. 1968.
348. Whitmore, J. H., T. W. Sullivan, and O. D. Grace. Efficacy of graded levels of p-ureidobenzenearsonic acid against different levels of exposure to histomoniasis in turkeys 5 and 13 weeks old. Poult. Sci. 47:450-453. 1968.
349. Wilkins, D., and D. L. Lee. Scanning electron microscopy of the caecal mucosa of turkeys infected with Histomonas meleagridis. J. Comp. Pathol. Ther. 84:589-597. 1974.
350. Wilson, S. G., and N. M. Perie. A study of the blood changes caused by Histomonas meleagridis in chickens. Tijdschr. Diergeneesk. 91:509-522. 1966.
351. Zajicek, D. [Laboratory diagnosis of parasites in Czechoslovakia in the years 1976-1986. III. Poultry]. Veterinárství 37:372-373. 1987.
352. Zajicek, D., and Chroust, K. [Laboratory diagnosis of parasites in Czechoslovakia in the years 1976-1986. V. Game deer, hares and pheasants]. Veterinárství 38:65-67. 1988
353. Zeakes, S. J., M. F. Hansen, and R. J. Robel. Increased susceptibility of bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) to Histomonas meleagridis after exposure to Sevin insecticide. Avian Dis. 25:981-987. 1981.
354. Zeng, Y. G., B. X. Ying, D. Z. Bang, C. K. Yi, and F. T. Sheng. Clinical symptoms and pathological observations on experimental histomoniasis in black-bone chickens. Chinese J. Vet. Sci. Tech. 26:30-31. 1997.
355. Zenner, L., M. P. Callait, C. Granier, and C. Chauve. In vitro effect of essential oils from Cinnamomumaromaticum, Citrus limon and Allium sativum on two intestinal flagellates of poultry, Tetratrichomonas gallinarum and Histomonas meleagridis. Parasite. J. Soc. Fr. Parasitol. 10:153-157. 2003.
356. Zhang, D. L., J. Y. Jia, and G. S. Zhang. [An investigation of poultry diseases in Gansu]. Chinese J. Vet. Med. 22:27-29. 1996.
357. Zhang, Z. J. Diagnosis and treatment of blackhead in turkeys. Chinese J. Vet. Med. 9:32. 1983.
358. Zukovic, M., and D. Mikacic. Occurrence and identification of parasites in the organs of hen, turkey, goose and ducks by dissection and slaughter. Tierarztliche Praxis, 4:317-338. 1976.