Morphology and relationships of Apternodus and other extinct, zalambdodont, placental mammals

Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History

Volumn , Issue 273, 2002, Pages 4-117

  Asher, Robert J ^a   McKenna, Malcolm C ^a,b   Emry, Robert J ^c   Tabrum, Alan R ^d   Kron, Donald G ^e  

^a DIVISION OF INVERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING   (United States)

^c DEPARTMENT OF PALEOBIOLOGY   (United States)

^d SECTION OF VERTEBRATE PALEONTOLOGY   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CRANIA; EUTHERIA; SOLENODON; SORICIDAE;

EID: 27644578623     PISSN: 00030090     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (173)

1. Allen, G.M. 1910. Mammals of the West Indies. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, 54: 175-263.
2. Ärnbäck-Christie-Linde, A. 1912. On the development of the teeth of the Soricidae: an ontogenetical inquiry. Annals and Magazine of Natural History 9(8): 601-624.
3. Asher, R.J. 1999. A morphological basis for assessing the phylogeny of the "Tenrecoidea" (Mammalia, Lipotyphla). Cladistics 15: 231-252.
4. Asher, R.J. 2000. Phylogenetic history of tenrecs and other insectivoran mammals. Ph.D. dissertation. State University of New York at Stony Brook.
5. Asher, R.J. 2001. Cranial anatomy in tenrecid insectivorans: character evolution across competing phylogenies. American Museum Novitates 3352: 1-54.
6. Asher, R.J., and M.R. Sánchez-Villagra. 2000. Jurassic molars in modern mammals: 150 million years of zalambdodont teeth. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 20(3): 27A.
7. Black, C.C., and M.R. Dawson. 1966a. A review of late Eocene mammalian faunas from North America. American Journal of Science 264: 321-349.
8. Black, C.C., and M.R. Dawson. 1966b. Paleontology and geology of the Badwater Creek area, central Wyoming. Annals of the Carnegie Museum 38(13): 297-307.
9. Bown, T.M., and M.J. Kraus. 1979. Origin of the tribosphenic molar and metatherian and eutherian dental formulae. In J.A. Lillegraven (editor), Mesozoic mammals: the first two-thirds of mammalian history: 172-181. Berkeley: University of California Press.
10. Bown, T.M., and D. Schankler. 1982. A review of the Proteutheria and Insectivora of the Willwood Formation (Lower Eocene), Bighorn Basin, Wyoming. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1523: 1-79.
11. Bremer, K. 1988. The limits of amino-acid sequence data in angiosperm phylogenetic reconstruction. Evolution 42: 795-803.
12. Bremer, K. 1994. Branch support and tree stability. Cladistics 10: 295-304.
13. Butler, P.M. 1937. Studies of the mammalian dentition - I. The teeth of Centetes ecaudatus and its allies. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 107: 103-132.
14. Butler, P.M. 1956. The skull of Ictops and the classification of the Insectivora. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 126: 453-481.
15. Butler, P.M. 1972. The problem of insectivore classification. In K.A. Joysey and T.R. Kemp (editors), Studies in vertebrate evolution: 253-265. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.
16. Butler, P.M. 1985. The history of African insectivores. Acta Zoologica Fennica 173: 215-217.
17. Butler, P.M. 1988. Phylogeny of the insectivores. In M.J. Benton (editor), The phylogeny and classification of the tetrapods, Vol. 2: Mammals: 117-141. Systematics Association Special Volume 35B. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
18. Carpenter, J.M. 1988. Choosing among equally parsimonious cladograms. Cladistics 4: 291-296.
19. Cartmill, M., and R.D.E. MacPhee. 1980. Tupaiid affinities: the evidence of the carotid arteries and cranial skeleton. In P. Luckett (editor), Comparative biology and evolutionary relationships of tree shrews: 95-132. New York: Plenum.
20. Clark, J. 1937. The stratigraphy and paleontology of the Chadron Formation in the Big Badlands of South Dakota. Annals of the Carnegie Museum 25: 261-350.
21. Clark, J., J.R. Beerbower, and K.K. Kietzke. 1967. Oligocene sedimentation, stratigraphy, paleoecology, and paleoclimatology in the Big Badlands of South Dakota. Fieldiana Geology 5: 1-158.
22. Cope, D.A. 1991. Measurements of dental variation as indicators of multiple taxa in samples of sympatric Cercopithecus species. In W.H. Kimbel and L.B. Martin (editors), Species, species concepts, and primate evolution: 211-237. New York: Plenum.
23. Cracraft, J. 1983. Species concepts and speciation analysis. In R. Johnston (editor), Current Ornithology: 159-187. New York: Plenum Press.
24. Dannelid, E. 1998. Dental adaptations in shrews. In J.M. Wojcik and M. Wolsan (editors), Evolution of shrews: 157-172. Bialowieza: Polish Academy of Sciences.
25. dePinna, M.C.C. 1991. Concepts and tests of homology in the cladistic paradigm. Cladistics 7: 367-394.
26. Edinger, T. 1964. Midbrain exposure and overlap in mammals. American Zoologist 4: 5-19.
27. Emerson, G.L., C.W. Kilpatrick, B.E. McNiff, J. Ottenwalder, and M.W. Allard. 1999. Phylogenetic relationships of the order insectivora based on complete 12s rRNA sequences from mitochondria. Cladistics 15: 221-230.
28. Emry, R.J. 1973. Striatigraphy and preliminary biostratigraphy of the Flagstaff Rim area, Natrona County, Wyoming. Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology 18: 1-43.
29. Emry, R.J. 1975. Revised Tertiary stratigraphy and paleontology of the western Beaver Divide, Natrona County, Wyoming. Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology 25: 1-20.
30. Emry, R.J. 1979. Review of Toxotherium (Perissodactyla: Rhinocerotoidea) with new material from the Early Oligocene of Wyoming. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 92(1): 28-41.
31. Emry, R.J. 1990. Mammals of the Bridgerian (middle Eocene) Elderberry Canyon local fauna of eastern Nevada. Geological Sociey of America Special Paper 243: 187-210.
32. Emry, R.J. 1992. Mammalian range zones in the Chadronian White River Formation at Flagstaff Rim, Wyoming. In D.R. Prothero and W.A. Berggren (editors), Eocene-Oligocene climatic and biotic evolution: 106-115. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
33. Emry, R.J., L.S. Russell, and P.R. Bork. 1987. The Chadronian, Orellan, and Whitneyan North American land mammal ages. In M.O. Woodburne (editor), Cenozoic mammals of North America: 118-152. Berkeley, University of California Press.
34. Farris, J.S. 1982. Outgroups and parsimony. Systematic Zoology 31: 328-334.
35. Farris, J.S. 1983. The logical basis of phylogenetic analysis. In N.I. Platnick and V.A. Funk (editors), Advances in cladistics, vol. 2: 7-36. New York: Columbia University Press.
36. Farris, J.S. 1989. The retention index and the rescaled consistency index. Cladistics 5: 417-419.
37. Fernhead, R. W., C.C.D. Shute, and A.A. Bellairs. 1954. The temporomandibular joint of shrews. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 125: 795-806.
38. Frost, D.R., W.C. Wozencraft, and R.S. Hoffman. 1991. Phylogenetic relationships of hedgehogs and gymnures (Mammalia: Insectivora: Erinaceidae). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 518: 1-69.
39. Galbreath, E.C. 1953. A contribution to the Tertiary geology and paleontology of northeastern Colorado. University of Kansas Paleontological Contributions Vertebrata 4: 1-120.
40. Galbreath, E.C. 1978. An apternodontid (Insectivora) from the Chadronian Oligocene of northeastern Colorado. Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 81: 297-302.
41. Galusha, T. 1975. Childs Frick and the Frick Collection of fossil mammals. Curator 18: 5-15.
42. Gawne, C.E. 1968. The genus Proterix (Insectivora, Erinaceidae) of the upper Oligocene of North America. American Museum Novitates 2315: 1-26.
43. Gill, T. 1883. On the classification of the insectivorous mammals. Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington 5: 118-120.
44. Gill, T. 1884. Insectivora. In J.S. Kingsley (editor), The standard natural history, vol. 5, Mammals: 134-158. Boston: S.E. Cassino.
45. Gingerich, P.D. 1976. Paleontology and phylogeny: patterns of evolution at the species level in early Tertiary mammals. American Journal of Science 276: 1-28.
46. Goloboff, P. 1993. NONA version 1.9 computer program. Shareware available at www.cladistics.org.
47. Gould, G.C. 1995. Hedgehog phylogeny (Mammalia, Erinaceidae) - the reciprocal illumination of the quick and the dead. American Museum Novitates 3131: 1-45.
48. Gregory, W.K. 1910. The orders of mammals. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 27: 1-524.
49. Gregory, W.K., and G.G. Simpson. 1926. Cretaceous mammal skulls from Mongolia. American Museum Novitates 225: 1-20.
50. Harris, A.H. 1998. Fossil history of shrews in North America. In J.M. Wojcik and M. Wolsan (editors), Evolution of shrews: 133-156. Bialowieza: Polish Academy of Sciences.
51. Hawkins, J.A., C.E. Hughes, and R.W. Scotland. 1997. Primary homology assessment, characters and character states. Cladistics 13: 275-283.
52. Hennig, W. 1965. Phylogenetic systematics. Annual Review of Entomology 10: 97-116.
53. Hoganson, J.W., E.C. Murphy, and N.F. Forsman. 1998. Lithostratigraphy, paleontology, and biochronology of the Chadron, Brule, and Arikaree Formations in North Dakota. Geological Society of America Special Paper 325: 185-196.
54. Hough, M.J. 1956. A new insectivore from the Oligocene of the Wind River Basin, Wyoming, with notes on the taxonomy of the Oligocene Tenrecoidea. Journal of Paleontology 30: 531-541.
55. Huxley, T.H. 1880. On the application of the laws of evolution to the arrangement of the Vertebrata and more particularly of the Mammalia. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 1880: 649-662.
56. International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. 1999. International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, 4th ed., adopted by the International Union of Biological Sciences. London: International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature.
57. Kielan-Jaworowska, Z. 1968. Results of the Polish-Mongolian palaeontological expeditions. Part 1: Preliminary data on the upper Cretaceous eutherian mammals from Bayn Dzak, Gobi Desert. Palaeontologica Polonica 19: 171-191.
58. Kielan-Jaworowska, Z. 1977. Evolution of therian mammals in the late Cretaceous of Asia. Part 2. Postcranial skeleton in Kennalestes and Asioryctes. Palaeontologica Polonica 37: 65-83.
59. Kimbel, W.H., and L.B. Martin. 1991. Species, species concepts, and primate evolution. New York: Plenum.
60. Kindahl, M. 1959a. Some aspects of the tooth development in Soricidae. Acta Odontologica Scandanavica 17: 203-237.
61. Kindahl, M. 1959b. The tooth development in Erinaceus europaeus. Acta Odontologica Scandanavica 17: 467-489
62. Kluge, A., and J.S. Farris. 1969. Quantitative phyletics and the evolution of anurans. Systematic Zoology 18: 1-32.
63. Konizeski, R.L. 1961. Paleoecology of an Early Oligocene biota from Douglass Creek Basin, Montana. Geological Society of America Bulletin 72: 1633-1642.
64. Krishtalka, L., and T. Setoguchi. 1977. Paleontology and geology of the Badwater Creek area, central Wyoming. Part 13. The late Eocene Insectivora and Dermoptera. Annals of Carnegie Museum 46(7): 71-99.
65. Kron, D.G. 1978. Oligocene vertebrate paleontology of the Dilts Ranch Area, Converse County, Wyoming. M.S. thesis, University of Wyoming, Laramie.
66. Kuenzi W.D., and R.W. Fields. 1971. Tertiary stratigraphy, structure, and geologic history, Jefferson Basin, Montana. Geological Society of America Bulletin 82: 3373-3394.
67. Leche, W. 1907. Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Zahnsystems der Säugethiere, zugleich ein Beitrag zur Stammesgeschichte dieses Thiergruppe. II. Theil. Phylogenie. 2. Heft. Die Familien der Centetidae, Solenodontidae und Chrysochloridae. Zoologica (Stuttgart) 20(49): 1-157.
68. Lee, D.C., and H.N. Bryant. 1999. A reconsideration of coding inapplicable characters: assumptions and problems. Cladistics 13: 373-378.
69. Lillegraven, J.A., M.C. McKenna, and L. Krishtalka. 1981. Evolutionary relationships of middle Eocene and younger species of Centetodon (Mammalia, Insectivora, Geolabididae) with a description of the dentition of Ankylodon (Adapisoricidae). University of Wyoming Publications 45: 1-115.
70. Lipscomb, D. 1992. Parsimony, homology, and the analysis of multistate characters. Cladistics 8: 45-65.
71. Linnaeus (Linné), C. 1758. Systema naturae per regna tria naturae secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus differentiis, synonymis, locis. Vol. 1: Regnum animale. Editio decima, reformata. Stockholm, Laurentii Salvii. [Facsimilie reprinted in 1956 by the British Museum (Natural History).]
72. Lockwood, C.A. 1999. Homoplasy and adptation in the atelid postcranium. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 108(4): 459-482.
73. Love, J.D., M.C. McKenna, and M.R. Dawson. 1976. Eocene, Oligocene, and Miocene rocks and vertebrate fossils at the Emerald Lake locality, 3 miles south of Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 932A: 1-26.
74. Luckett, W.P. 1993. An ontogenetic assessment of dental homologies in therian mammals. In F.S. Szalay, M.J. Novacek, and M.C. McKenna (editors), Mammal phylogeny, vol. 1: Mesozoic differentiation, monotremes, multituberculates, and marsupials: 182-203. New York: Springer.
75. Macdonald, J.R. 1951. Additions to the Whitneyan fauna of South Dakota. Journal of Paleontology 25(3): 257-265.
76. MacPhee, R.D.E. 1979. Entotympanics, ontogeny, and primates. Folia Primatologica 31: 23-47.
77. MacPhee, R.D.E. 1981. Auditory regions of primates and eutherian insectivores: morphology, ontogeny, and character analysis. Contributions to Primatology 18: 1-282.
78. MacPhee, R.D.E. 1987. The shrew tenrecs of Madagascar: systematic revision and Holocene distribution of Microgale (Tenrecidae, Insectivora). American Museum Novitates 2889: 1-45.
79. MacPhee, R.D.E. 1994. Morphology, adaptations, and relationships of Plesiorycteropus, and a diagnosis of a new order of eutherian mammals. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 220: 1-214.
80. MacPhee, R.D.E., and M.J. Novacek. 1993. Definition and relationships of Lipotyphla. In F.S. Szalay, M.J. Novacek, and M.C. McKenna (editors), Mammal phylogeny, vol. 2: Placentals: 13-31. New York: Springer.
81. MacPhee, R.D.E., M.J. Novacek, and G. Storch. 1988. Basicranial morphology of Early Tertiary erinaceomorphs and the origin of primates. American Museum Novitates 2921: 1-42.
82. Maddison, D.R. 1993. Missing data versus missing characters in phylogenetic analysis. Systematic Biology 42: 576-581.
83. Maddison D.R., and W.P. Maddison. 2000. MacClade computer program version 4.0. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
84. Matthew, W.D. 1903. The fauna of the Titanotherium beds at Pipestone Springs, Montana. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 19(6): 197-226.
85. Matthew, W.D. 1910. On the skull of Apternodus and the skeleton of a new artiodactyl. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 28(5): 33-42.
86. Matthew, W.D. 1913. A zalambdodont insectivore from the basal Eocene. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 32(17): 307-314.
87. McDowell, S.B., Jr. 1958. The Greater Antillean insectivores. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 115(3): 113-214.
88. McGrew, O., J.E. Berman, M.K. Hecht, J.M. Hummel, G.G. Simpson, and A.E. Wood. 1959. The geology and paleontology of the Elk Mountain and Tabernacle Butte area, Wyoming. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 117(3): 117-176.
89. McKenna, M.C. 1960. The Geolabidinae: a new subfamily of early Cenozoic erinaceoid insectivores. University of California Publications in Geological Sciences 37(2): 131-164.
90. McKenna, M.C. 1975. Toward a phylogeny and classification of the Mammalia. In W.P. Luckett and F.S. Szalay (editors), Phylogeny of the primates: a multidisciplinary approach: 21-46. New York: Plenum.
91. McKenna, M.C. 1980. Late Cretaceous and early Tertiary vertebrate paleontological reconnaissance, Togwotee Pass area, northwestern Wyoming. In L.L. Jacobs (editor), Aspects of vertebrate history: 321-343. Flagstaff: Museum of Northern Arizona Press.
92. McKenna, M.C., and S.K. Bell. 1997. Classification of mammals above the species level. New York: Columbia University Press.
93. McKenna, M.C., P. Robinson, and D.W. Taylor. 1962. Notes on Eocene mammalia and mollusca from Tabernacle Butte, Wyoming. American Museum Novitates 2102: 1-33.
94. McKenna, M.C., X. Xue, and M. Zhou. 1984. Prosarcodon lonanensis, a new Paleocene micropternodontid insectivore from Asia. American Museum Novitates 2780: 1-17.
95. Miller, G.S. 1907. The families and genera of bats. Bulletin of the United States National Museum 57: 1-282.
96. Murphy, W.J., E. Eizirik, W.E. Johnson, Y.P. Zhang, O.A. Ryder, and S.J. O'Brien. 2001. Molecular phylogenetics and the origins of placental mammals. Nature 409: 614-618.
97. Nessov, L.A., and A.A. Gureyev. 1981. The find of a jaw of the most ancient shrew in the upper Cretaceous of the Kylzyl Kum Desert. Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 157(4): 1-3.
98. Nixon, K.C. 1999. Winclada (BETA) ver. 0.9.99m24. Ithaca, NY: Published by the author. Available at www.cladistics.org.
99. Nixon, K.C., and J.M. Carpenter. 1993. On outgroups. Cladistics 9: 413-426.
100. Nixon, K.C., and J.M. Carpenter. 1996. On simultaneous analysis. Cladistics 12: 221-241.
101. Nixon, K.C., and Q.D. Wheeler. 1992. Extinction and the origin of species. In M.J. Novacek and Q.D. Wheeler (editors), Extinction and phylogeny: 119-143. New York: Columbia University Press.
102. Norell, M.A. 1992. Taxic orgin and temporal diversity: the effect of phylogeny. In M.J. Novacek and Q.D. Wheeler (editors), Extinction and phylogeny: 89-118. New York: Columbia University Press.
103. Novacek, M.J. 1976a. Insectivora and Proteutheria of the later Eocene (Uintan) of San Diego County, California. Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County Contributions in Science 283: 1-52.
104. Novacek, M.J. 1976b. Early Tertiary vertebrate faunas, Vieja Group, Trans-Pecos Texas: Insectivora. Texas Memorial Museum Pearce-Sellards Series 23: 1-18.
105. Novacek, M.J. 1986. The skull of leptictid insectivorans and the higher level classification of eutherian mammals. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 183: 1-111.
106. Nowak, R.M. 1999. Walker's mammals of the world, 6th edition. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
107. Osborn, H.F. 1910. The age of mammals in Europe, Asia, and North America. New York: Macmillan.
108. Ostrander, G. 1983. New early Oligocene (Chadronian) mammals from the Raben Ranch local fauna, northwest Nebraska. Journal of Paleontology 57: 128-139.
109. Ostrander, G. 1987. The early Oligocene (Chadronian) Raben Ranch local fauna, northwest Nebraska: Marsupialia, Insectivora, Dermoptera, Chiroptera, and Primates. Dakoterra 3: 92-104.
110. Patterson, B. 1956. Early Cretaceous mammals and the evolution of mammalian molar teeth. Fieldiana Geology 13(1): 1-105.
111. Patterson, B. 1962. An extinct solenodontid insectivore from Hispaniola. Breviora 165: 1-11.
112. Patterson, B. unpublished MS. The Oligocene insectivore Apternodus and the Greater Antillean insectivores.
113. Patterson, B., and P.O. McGrew. 1937. A soricid and two erinaceids from the White River Oligocene. Field Museum of Natural History Publications, Geological Series 6(18): 245-272.
114. Plavcan, J.M. 1991. Catarrhine dental variability and species recognition in the fossil record. In W.H. Kimbel and L.B. Martin (editors), Species, species concepts, and primate evolution: 239-263. New York: Plenum.
115. Platnick, N.I., C.E. Griswold, and J.A. Coddington. 1991. On missing entries in cladistic analysis. Cladistics 7: 337-343.
116. Pleijel, F. 1995. On character coding for phylogeny reconstruction. Cladistics 11: 309-315.
117. Pogue, M., and M.F. Mickevitch. 1990. Character definitions and character state delineations: the bete noir of phylogenetics. Cladistics 6: 365-369.
118. Prothero, D.R. 1985. Chadronian (early Oligocene) magnetostratigraphy of eastern Wyoming: implications for the Eocene-Oligocene boundary. Journal of Geology 93: 555-565.
119. Prothero, D.R. 1998. The chronological, climatic, and paleogeographic background to North American mammalian evolution. In C.M. Janis, K.M. Scott, and L.L. Jacobs (editors), Evolution of Tertiary mammals of North America: 9-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
120. Prothero, D.R., and D.B. Lazarus. 1980. Planktonic microfossils and the recognition of ancestors. Systematic Zoology 28: 119-129.
121. Prothero, D.R., and K.E. Whittlesey. 1998. Magnetostratigraphy and biostratigraphy of the Orellan and Whitneyan land mammal "ages" in the White River Group. Geological Society of America Special Paper 325: 39-61.
122. Quinet, G.E., and X. Misonne. 1965. Les insectivores zalambdodontes de l'Oligocene inferieur. Bulletin Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique 41(19): 1-15.
123. Riel, S.J. 1963. A basal Oligocene local fauna from McCarty's Mountain, southwestern Montana. M.S. thesis, University of Montana, Missoula.
124. Robinson, G.D. 1963. Geology of the Three Forks Quadrangle, Montana. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 370: 1-143.
125. Robinson, P., C.C. Black, and M.R. Dawson. 1964. Late Eocene multituberculates and other mammals from Wyoming. Science 145: 809-811.
126. Robinson, P., and D.G. Kron. 1998. Koniaryctes, a new genus of apternodontid insectivore from Lower Eocene rocks of the Powder River Basin, Wyoming. Contributions to Geology University of Wyoming 32(2): 187-190.
127. Robinson, P., and B.A. Williams. 1997. Species diversity, tooth size, and shape of Haplomylus (Condylarthra, Hyopsodontidae) from the Powder River Basin, northwestern Wyoming. Contributions to Geology University of Wyoming 31(2): 59-78.
128. Romer, A.S. 1966. Vertebrate paleontology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
129. Rosen, D.E. 1978. Vicariant patterns and historical explanation in biogeography. Systematic Zoology 27: 159-188.
130. Russell, D.A. 1960. A review of the Oligocene insectivore Micropternodus borealis. Journal of Paleontology 34(5): 940-949.
131. Saether, O.A. 1979. Underlying synapomorphies and anagenetic analysis. Zoologica Scripta 8: 305-312.
132. Schlaikjer, E.M. 1933. Contributions to the stratigraphy and palaeontology of the Goshen Hole area, Wyoming. I. A detailed study of the structure and relationships of a new zalambdodont insectivore from the middle Oligocene. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 76(1): 1-27.
133. Schlaikjer, E.M. 1934. A new fossil zalambdodont insectivore. American Museum Novitates 698: 1-8.
134. Scott, W.B., and G.L. Jepsen. 1936. The mammalian fauna of the White River Oligocene. Part 1. Insectivora and Carnivora. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 28: 1-153.
135. Shigehara, N. 1980. Epiphyseal union and tooth eruption of the Ryukyu house shrew, Suncus murinus, in captivity. Journal of the Mammalogical Society of Japan 8(5): 151-159.
136. Simmons, N.B. 1993. The importance of methods: archontan phylogeny and cladistic analysis of morphological data. In R.D.E. MacPhee (editor), Primates and their relatives in phylogenetic perspective: 1-61. New York: Plenum.
137. Simpson, G.G. 1931. A new classification of mammals. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 59(5): 259-293.
138. Simpson, G.G. 1945. The principles of classification and a classification of mammals. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 85: 1-350.
139. Simpson, G.G. 1947. Note on the measurement of variability and on relative variability of teeth of fossil mammals, American Journal of Science 245: 522-525.
140. Simpson, G.G., A. Roe, and R.C. Lewontin. 1960. Quantitative zoology. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
141. Sloan, R.E. 1969. Cretaceous and Paleocene terrestrial communities of western North America. Proceedings of the North American Paleontological Convention Part E: 427-453.
142. Sprague, J.M. 1944. The hyoid region of the Insectivora. American Journal of Anatomy 74(2): 175-216.
143. Sokal, R.R., and C.A. Braumann. 1980. Significance tests for coefficients of variation and variability profiles. Systematic Zoology 34: 449-456.
144. Sokal, R.R., and F.J. Rohlf. 1995. Biometry, 3rd Ed. New York: Freeman.
145. Stanhope, M.J., V.G. Waddell, O. Madsen, W.W. de Jong, S.B. Hedges, G.C. Cleven, D. Kao, and M.S. Springer. 1998. Molecular evidence for multiple origins of the Insectivora and for a new order of endemic African mammals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 95: 9967-9972.
146. Starck, D. 1995. Lehrbuch der Speziellen Zoologie. Band 2: Wirbeltiere. Teile 1-2: Saeugetiere. Jena: Gustav Fischer.
147. Stirton, R.A., and J.M. Rensberger. 1964. Occurrence of the insectivore genus Micropternodus in the John Day Formation of central Oregon. Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Sciences 63: 57-80.
148. Storer, J.E. 1984. Mammals of the Swift Current Creek local fauna (Eocene): Uintan, Saskatchewan. Saskatchewan Museum of Natural History Contributions 7: 1-158.
149. Storer, J.E. 1995. Small mammals of the Lac Pelletier Lower Fauna, Duchesnean, of Saskatchewan, Canada: insectivores and insectivore-like groups, a plagiomenid, a microsyopid, and Chiroptera. In W.A.S. Sargeant (editor), Vertebrate fossils and the evolution of scientific concepts: 595-615. Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach.
150. Storer, J.E. 1996. Eocene-Oligocene faunas of the Cypress Hills Formation, Saskatchewan. In D.R. Prothero and R.J. Emry (editors), The terrestrial Eocene-Oligocene transition in North America: 240-261. New York: Cambridge University Press.
151. Strong, E.E., and D. Lipscomb. 1999. Character coding and inapplicable data. Cladistics 13: 363-371.
152. Stucky, R.K., D.R. Prothero, W.G. Lohr, and J.R. Snyder. 1996. Magnetic stratigraphy, sedimentology, and mammalian faunas of the early Uintan Washakie Formation, Sand Wash Basin, northwestern Colorado. In D.R. Prothero and R.J. Emry (editors), The terrestrial Eocene-Oligocene transition in North America: 40-51. New York: Cambridge University Press.
153. Swisher, C.C. and D.R. Prothero. 1990. Single Crystal Ar/Ar dating of the Eocene-Oligocene transition in North America. Science 249: 760-762.
154. Swofford, D.L. 2000. PAUP*. Phylogenetic analysis using parsimony (*and Other Methods), beta version 4.0b10. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
155. Szalay, F.S. 1969. Mixodectidae, Microsyopidae, and the insectivore-primate transition. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 140: 193-330.
156. Tabrum, A.R. 1998. First record of a hypertragulid artiodactyl from the Chadronian of western Montana. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 18(supplement): 81A.
157. Tabrum, A.R., D.R. Prothero, and D. Garcia. 1996. Magnetostratigraphy and biostratigraphy of the Eocene-Oligocene transition, southwestern Montana. In D.R. Prothero and R.J. Emry (editors), The Terrestrial Eocene-Oligocene transition in North America: 278-311. New York: Cambridge University Press.
158. Tabrum, A.R., R. Nichols, and A.D. Barnosky. 2001. Tertiary paleontology of southwest Montana and adjacent Idaho. In C.L. Hill (editor), SVP Guidebook, Mesozoic and Cenozoic paleontology in the western plains and Rocky Mountains. Occasional Paper Museum of the Rockies 3: 93-112.
159. Thewissen, J.G.M., and P.D. Gingerich. 1989. Skull and endocranial cast of Eoryctes melanus, a new palaeoryctid (Mammalia: Insectivora) from the early Eocene of western North America. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 9(4): 459-470.
160. Tong, Y. 1997. Middle Eocene small mammals from Liguanqiao Basin of Henan Province and Yuanqu Basin of Shanxi Province, central China. Palaeontologia Sinica Whole Number 18, New Series C, no. 26: 1-256.
161. Tong, Y., S. Zheng, and Z. Qui. 1995. Cenozoic mammal ages of China. Vertebrata Palasiatica 33(4): 290-314.
162. Vandebroek, G. 1961. The comparative anatomy of the teeth of lower and nonspecialized mammals. In International Colloquium on the Evolution of Lower and Nonspecialized Mammals: 215-320. Brussels: Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie voor Wetenschappen.
163. Van Valen, L. 1966. Deltatheridia, a new order of mammals. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 132: 1-126.
164. Walsh, S.L. 1996. Middle Eocene mammalian faunas of San Diego County, California. In D.R. Prothero and R.J. Emry (editors), The terrestrial Eocene-Oligocene transition in North America: 75-119. New York: Cambridge University Press.
165. West, R.M., and E.G. Atkins. 1970. Additional Middle Eocene (Bridgerian) mammals from Tabernacle Butte, Sublette County, Wyoming. American Museum Novitates 2404: 1-26.
166. Whidden, H.P., and R.J. Asher. 2001. The origin of the Greater Antillean Insectivorans. In C.A. Woods and F.E. Sergile (editors), West Indian biogeography: 237-250. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
167. White, T.E. 1954. Preliminary analysis of the fossil vertebrates of the Canyon Ferry Reservoir area. Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum 103(3326): 395-438.
168. Wible, J.R. 1986. Transformation in the extracranial course of the internal carotid artery in mammalian phylogeny. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 6: 313-325.
169. Wible, J.R., G.W. Rougier, M.J. Novacek, and M.C. McKenna. 2001. Earliest eutherian ear region: a petrosal referred to Prokennalestes from the Early Cretaceous of Mongolia. American Museum Novitates 3322: 1-44.
170. Wiley, E.O. 1981. Phylogenetics: the theory and practice of phylogenetic systematics. New York: Wiley-Liss.
171. Winkler, D.A. 1983. Paleoecology of an Early Eocene mammalian fauna from paleosols in the Clarks Fork Basin, northwestern Wyoming (U.S.A.). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 43: 261-298.
172. Wojcik, J.M., and M. Wolsan. 1998. Evolution of shrews. Bialowieza: Polish Academy of Sciences.
173. Wood, C.B., M.C. McKenna, and D. Bosko. 2000. An old specimen of a new undescribed late Paleocene Apternodus-like insectivore. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 20(supplement): 80A.