From good cheer to "drive-by smiling": A social history of cheerfulness

Journal of Social History

Volumn 39, Issue 1, 2005, Pages

  Kotchemidova, Christina ^a,b  

^a NEW YORK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Department of Culture and Communication ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 26644444076     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2005.0108     Document Type: Review

References (228)

1. Peter Stearns and Carol Stearns, "Emotionology: Clarifying the History of Emotions and Emotional Standards," American Historical Review 90 (1985): 13-36
2. Arlie Hochschild, "Emotion Work, Feeling Rules, and Social Structure," American Journal of Sociology 85 (1979): 551-75, p. 551
3. Erving Goffman, in The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Woodstock, 1959), shows how we perform in our social encounters, as well as in relation to our own self-image, in order to negotiate a self-identity and to have meaningful interaction with others.
4. Hochschild, "Emotion Work, Feeling Rules, and Social Structure," p. 561
5. Steven Gordon, "Social Structural Effects on Emotion," Research Agendas in the Sociology of Emotions, ed. Theodore Kemper (New York, 1990): 145-179;
6. Hochschild, "Emotion work, feeling rules, and social structure";
7. Theodore Kemper, "Social Models in the Explanation of Emotions," Handbook of Emotions, eds. Michael Lewis, Jeanette Haviland-Jones (New York, 2000): 45-58, p. 51
8. William James, "What Is an Emotion?" Mind 9 (1884): 190-204, p. 198.
9. Sandra Duclos, James Laird, Eric Schneider, Melissa Sexter, Lisa Stern and Oliver Van Lighten, "Emotion-Specific Effects of Facial Expressions and Postures on Emotional Experience," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57 (1989): 100-108;
10. Sabine Stepper and Fritz Strack, "Proprioceptive Determinants of Emotional and Non-Emotional Feelings," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 (1993): 210-22; and others.
11. Fritz Strack, Leonard Martin and Sabine Stepper, "Inhibiting and Facilitating Conditions of the Human Smile: A Non-Obtrusive Test of the Facial Feedback Hypothesis," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (1988): 768-76
12. Hochschild, "Emotion Work, Feeling Rules, and Social Structure," p. 562
13. A purely physical arousal without a cognitive component amounts to no more than an organismic reaction which is insufficient to be recognized as emotion. (See Stanley Schahter and Jerome Singer, "Cognitive, Social and Physiological Determinants of Emotional State," Psychological Review 69 [5] [1962]: 379-99.)
14. In fact, one and the same bodily reaction may be perceived as different emotions, depending on the situation one is in; on the other hand, the same avowed emotion may be physically experienced differently by different subjects. (See G.P. Ginsburg and Melanie Harrington, "Bodily States and Context in Situated Lines of Action," The Emotions: Social, Cultural and Biological Dimensions, eds. Rom Harré and Gerrod Parrott [London/Thousand Oaks, 1996]: 229-258.) Hence, emotions are an amalgam of bodily sensation and awareness, which is why we think of animals as lacking emotions and experiencing just drives - the physical part of emotions, devoid of consciousness.
15. Emotions have appeared and disappeared historically. For example, medieval Europeans recognized well the emotion of Accidie (acedia) - a kind of spiritual torpor characterized by boredom, dejection and aversion to fulfilling one's religious duty (praying), which, in modern times, became obsolete. (See Rom Harré and Robert Finlay-Jones, "Emotion Talk Across Times," The Social Construction of Emotions, ed. Rom Harré [Oxford, New York, 1986]: 220-233
16. For example, the Japanese emotion of amae - presuming upon another's love, the Bengali obhiman - sorrow caused by the insensitivity of a loved one, and the Spanish vergüenza ajena - an empathetic embarrassment for someone misbehaving in public, have no equivalents among the emotion lexicon of other nations (James Russell "Culture and the Categorization of Emotions," Psychological Bulletin 110 [3] [1991]: 426-450
17. Jan Lewis and Peter Stearns, "Introduction" to An Emotional History of the United States, eds. Peter Stearns and Jan Lewis (New York, 1998): 1-14, p. 2
18. Peggy Thoits, "Emotional Deviance: Research Agenda," Research Agendas in the Sociology of Emotions, ed. Theodore Kemper (New York, 1990): 180-203;
19. Catherine Lutz, "Depression and the Translation of Emotional Worlds," Culture and Depression: Studies in the Anthropology and Cross-Cultural Psychiatry of Affect and Disorder, eds. Arthur Kleinman and Byron Good (Berkeley, 1985): 63-100
20. Carol Stearns "Lord Help Me Walk Humbly: Anger and Sadness in England and America, 1570-1750," Emotion and Social Change: Toward a New Psychohistory, eds. Carol Steams and Peter Stearns (New York, 1988): 39-68
21. Carol Stearns, "Lord Help Me Walk Humbly: Anger and Sadness in England and America, 1570-1750," p. 54. The specific emotionological change referred to here will be discussed in the next section, "The Shift."
22. Anne Amend, "Melancholy," Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment, ed. Michel Delon (Chicago, 2001): 822-826.
23. Anne Amend, "Melancholy," p. 823.
24. Anne Vincent-Buffault, The History of Tears (New York, 1991).
25. Ann Vincent-Buffault, The History of Tears, p. 8
26. Anne Vincent-Buffault, The History of Tears, pp. 9-14
27. Ann Vincent-Buffault, The History of Tears, pp. 78-89
28. Allan Nevins, America Through British Eyes, (New York, 1948), p. 158
29. Carol Stearns, "Lord Help Me Walk Humbly: Anger and Sadness in England and America, 1570-1750"
30. The examples in this paragraph are from Carol Stearns, "Lord Help Me Walk Humbly: Anger and Sadness in England and America, 1570-1750," p. 41-42
31. Carol Stearns, "Lord Help Me Walk Humbly: Anger and Sadness in England and America, 1570-1750"
32. Carol Barr-Zisowitz, " 'Sadness' - Is There Such a Thing?" Handbook of Emotions, p. 607-622.
33. James Russell and Ghyslaine Lemay, "Emotion Concepts, Handbook of Emotions, p. 491-503;
34. Carol Barr-Zisowitz, "'Sadness' - Is There Such a Thing?" Handbook of Emotions, p. 607-622.
35. John Byrom's diary, quoted in Carol Stearns, "Lord Help Me Walk Humbly: Anger and Sadness in England and America, 1570-1750," p. 51
36. Joseph Conforti, "Samuel Hopkins and the New Divinity: Theology, Ethics, and Social Reform in Eighteenth-Century New England," William and Mary Quarterly 34 (4) (1977): 572-589
37. John Crowley, This Sheba, Self: The Conceptualization of Economic Life in Eighteenth-Century America, (Baltimore, 1974) p. 91-2
38. John Crowley, This Sheba, Self: The Conceptualization of Economic Life in Eighteenth-Century America, p. 153
39. John Crowley, This Sheba, Self: The Conceptualization of Economic Life in Eighteenth-Century America, p. 106
40. Jacquelyn Miller, "An 'Uncommon Tranquility of Mind': Emotional Self-Control and the Construction of a Middle-Class Identity in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," Journal of Social History 30 (1) (1996): 129-148, p. 129-30
41. Toby Ditz, "Shipwrecked; or, Masculinity Imperiled: Mercantile Representations of Failure and the Gendered Self in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," The Journal of American History 82 (1) (1994): 51-71
42. Toby Ditz, "Shipwrecked; or, Masculinity Imperiled: Mercantile Representations of Failure and the Gendered Self in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," p. 60
43. Jacquelyn Miller, "An 'Uncommon Tranquility of Mind': Emotional Self-Control and the Construction of a Middle-Class Identity in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," p. 140
44. Cary Carson, "The Consumer Revolution in Colonial British America: Why Demand?," Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century, eds. Cary Carson, Ronald Huffman, and Peter J. Albert (Charlottesville, VA/London, 1994): 483-697;
45. Alison Bell, "Emulation and Social Empowerment: Material, Social and Economic Dy namics in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Virginia," International Journal of Historical Archaeology 6 (4) (2002): 253-298
46. Mary Cable, American Manners and Morals: A Picture History of How We Behaved and Misbehaved (New York, 1969), p. 93
47. Peter Stearns, American Cool (New York, 1994), p. 90
48. William Cobbett, A Year's Residence in the United States of America (New York, 1969), p. 347
49. Allan Nevins, America Through British Eyes, p. 67
50. Allan Nevins, America Through British Eyes, p. 91
51. Mary Cable, American Manners and Morals, p. 94
52. Francis Joseph Grund, The Americans in Their Moral, Social and Political Relations (New York, 1968), pp. 173-4, 205
53. Allan Nevins, America Through British Eyes, p. 206
54. Frances Trollope, Domestic Manners of the Americans (New York, 1949), pp. 161-2, 317-19, 325, 329-30, 408-9.
55. Ferencz Pulszky, White, Red, Black; Sketches of Society in the United States by Francis and Theresa Pulszky during the Visit of Their Guest Lajos Kossuth (New York, 1853), p. 175
56. Charles Sherrill, French Memories of Eighteenth-Century America (New York, 1971), p. 224-5
57. Jack Larkin, The Reshaping of Everyday Life, 1790-1840 (New York, 1988), p. 156
58. Mary Cable, American Manners and Morals, p. 83
59. Jack Larkin, The Reshaping of Everyday Life, 1790-1840, p. 155-6
60. Harriet Martineau, Retrospect of Western Travel (New York, 2000), vol.1, p. 43-4, 58, 134-5, 142-3;
61. Harriet Martineau, Retrospect of Western Travel vol. 3, p. 111-12, 120-21, 228, 242-5, 276-8.
62. Frances Wright, Views of Society and Manners in America (Cambridge, MA, 1963), p. 16, 23, 27
63. Huge Münnsterberg, The Americans (New York, 1904), p. 536
64. André Lafond, Impressions of America (Paris/New York, 1930), p. 102-7
65. Nancy Schnog, "Changing Emotions: Moods and the Nineteenth-Century American Woman Writer," Inventing the Psychological: Toward a Cultural History of Emotional Life in America, eds. Joel Pfister and Nancy Schnog (New Haven, 1997):84-109
66. Catherine Beecher and Harriet Beecher Stowe, American Women's Home: Or, Principles of Domestic Science (Hartford, CT, [1869] 1987)
67. William Alcott, The Young Wife; Or, Duties of Women in the Marriage Relation (Boston, 1837)
68. Nancy Schnog, "Changing Emotions: Moods and the Nineteenth-Century American Woman Writer," p. 93
69. Peter Stearns, "Anger and American work," Emotion and Social Change, eds. Carol Stearns and Peter Stearns (New York, 1988), p. 127-8
70. Nancy Schnog, "Changing Emotions: Moods and the Nineteenth-Century American Woman Writer"
71. Nancy Schnog, "Changing Emotions: Moods and the Nineteenth-Century American Woman Writer," pp. 93-4
72. Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (New York, [1963] 1983)
73. The transformation of anger into cheerfulness is possible because the two emotions are close in many respects. Both involve arousal rather than lethargy; the difference is categorizational and has to do to some extent with cultural conceptions of positive-negative emotions and varying views of aggression. Even today there are societies that experience anger positively (see James Russell, "Culture and the Categorization of Emotions.") Sometimes anger and cheerfulness can be confused, as, for example, in teasing or tickling.
74. Peter Stearns, "Anger and American work"
75. Peter Stearns, "Anger and American work," p. 128
76. Peter Stearns, "Anger and American work," p. 129
77. Peter Stearns, American Cool, p. 122, 219
78. Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley, 1983), p. 11
79. Peter Stearns, "Anger and American work," p. 124
80. Peter Stearns, "Anger and American work," p. 129
81. Cas Wouters, "Etiquette Books and Emotion Management," An Emotional History of the United States, eds. Peter Stearns and Jan Lewis (New York, 1998):283-304, p. 299
82. Dale Carnegie Page, http://www.westegg.com/unmaintained/carnegie/dc- books.html
83. Peter Stearns, "Anger and American work," p. 135;
84. Peter Stearns, American Cool, p. 219
85. Charles Godfrey Leland (Gainesville, FL, 1862)
86. Orison Swett Marden (New York, 1899)
87. Ralph Waldo Trine, On the Open Road: being some thoughts and a little creed of whole-some living (New York, 1908)
88. Wilbur Nesbit (Chicago, 1911)
89. George Van Ness Dearborn (Boston, 1920)
90. A. Hopkinson, Be Merry: Some Thoughts on Mirth as a Christian Duty (Milwaukee, 1925)
91. Robert Haven Schauffler, Enjoy Living: An Invitation to Happiness (New York, 1939)
92. Dale Carnegie (New York, 1951)
93. Lionel Tiger (New York, 1979)
94. Marvin Heiferman and Carole Kismaric (New York, 1990)
95. Orison Marden, Cheerfulness as a Life Power;
96. Dearborn, The Influence of Joy
97. Charles Leland, Sunshine in Thought;
98. Schauffler, Enjoy Living: An Invitation to Happiness
99. Dale Carnegie, How to Win Friends and Influence People, How to Stop Worrying and Start Living
100. Charles Leland, Sunshine in Thought, p. 16
101. Dale Carnegie, How to Stop Worrying and Start Living, p. 100
102. Charles Leland, Sunshine in Thought, p. 4, 8, 96
103. Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence (New York, 1995);
104. Dylan Evans, Emotion: The Science of Sentiment (New York, 2001)
105. As Eliza Duffey, in The Relation of the Sexes (1876), exclaimed: "Is it not possible that there may be a love strong enough and abiding enough, untinged by passion, to hold a husband and wife firm and fast in its bonds, and leave them little to desire? [. . .] I believe in marriage all through - the soul, the mind, the heart, and the body, and I would make the last the weakest and least indispensable tie."
106. Quoted in Peter Stearns, American Cool, p. 36
107. Peter Steams, American Cool, p. 30, 63, 84, 127
108. Peter Stearns and Timothy Haggerty, "The Role of Fear: Transition in American Emotional Standards for Children, 1850-1950," American Historical Review, 96 (1991): 63-94
109. Mary Cable, American Manners and Morals, p. 175
110. Valerie Polakow, Lives of the Edge (Chicago/London, 1993), p. 22-40
111. Peter Stearns, American Cool, p. 26, 33-4
112. For an elaborate analysis of the sexualization of love see Kevin White, "The New Man and Early Twentieth-Century Emotional Culture in The United States," An Emotional History of the United States, eds. Peter Stearns and Jan Lewis (New York, 1998): 333-356,
113. and Cas Wouters, "Balancing Sex and Love since the 1960s Sexual Revolution," Theory, Culture and Society 15 (3): 187-214
114. Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process (New York, [1939] (1982)
115. Peter Stearns and Timothy Haggerty, "The Role of Fear: Transition in American Emotional Standards for Children, 1850-1950"
116. Peter Stearns and Mark Knapp, "Historical perspectives on grief," The Emotions: Social, Cultural and Biological Dimensions, eds. Rom Harré and Gerrod Parrott (London/Thousand Oaks, 1996), p. 132-150
117. Peter Stearns, American Cool, p. 168-171
118. Peter Steams, American Cool, p. 26, 87, 99
119. On the growing negativity of emotions in the age of Modernity see James Averill, "On the Paucity of Positive Emotions," Advances in the Study of Communication and Affect, Vol. 6: Assessment and Modification of Emotional Behavior, eds. Kirk Blankstein, Patricia Pliner and Janet Polivy (New York/London, 1978): 7-45;
120. and Catherine Lutz, "Engendered Emotion: Gender, Power and the Rhetoric of Emotional Control in American Discourse," The Emotions: Social, Cultural and Biological Dimensions, eds. Rom Harré and Gerrod Parrott (London/Thousand Oaks, 1996): 151-170
121. For an exhaustive analysis of twentieth century tendency to emotion deintensification see Peter Stearns, American Cool.
122. The process is also treated by Kevin White, "The New Man and Early Twentieth-Century Emotional Culture in the United States,"
123. Linda Rosenzweig, " 'Another Self? Middle-Class American Women and Their Friends, 1900-1960," An Emotional History of the United States, 357-376,
124. Otniel Dror, "Creating the Emotional Body: Confusion, Possibilities, and Knowledge," 173-195, and others.
125. Peter Stearns, American Cool, p. 240-242;
126. Kevin White, "The New Man and Early Twentieth-Century Emotional Culture in the United States;"
127. Cas Wouters, "Balancing Sex and Love since the 1960s Sexual Revolution"
128. Marie Griffith, " 'Joy Unspeakable and Full of Glory': The Vocabulary of Pious Emotion in the Narratives of American Pentecostal Women, 1910-1945," An Emotional History of the United States (New York, 1998): 218-240
129. Georg Simmel explains that the money economy cultivated rationalism as a lifestyle demanding restraint over emotions in consideration of usefulness. See Georg Simmel, The Philosophy of Money (London, [1900] 1978).
130. Susan Sontag, Illness as Metaphor (New York, 1978)
131. Peter Stearns, American Cool, p. 245
132. Peter Stearns, American Cool, p. 139
133. Dean Murphy, "Eagle Scout Faces Official Challenge over His Lack of Faith" New York Times, 11/03/2002, p. A 20;
134. "What Is Boy Scouting?" BSA Fact Sheets, http://www.scouting. org/factsheets/02-503.html
135. Boy Scouts of America, 2003 Annual Report, http://www.scouting.org/nav/ enter.jsp?s=mc&.c=fs
136. Jobweb.com, "10 Steps to a Successful Interview", http://www.jobweb.com/ Resources/Library/Interviews/10_Steps_to_a_02_01.htm
137. See Boston College Career Center, Interview techniques, http://www.bc.edu/offices/ careers/resourcesfor/soeresources/edinterview,
138. and University of California Berkeley, Career Center, "10 Most Common Interview Mistakes," 9/27/2002, http://career.berkeley.edu/Article/ 020927b.stm
139. Todd Gitlin, in Media Unlimited: How the Torrent of Images and Sounds Overwhelms Our Lives (New York, 2001), argues that we use media primarily as sources of emotion experience (not information).
140. Roland Marchand, Advertising and the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity 1920-1940 (Berkeley, 1986), p. 18-23, 120-122;
141. T.J.Jackson-Lears, "The Rise of American Advertising," Wilson Quarterly 1 (1983): 156-167
142. Roland Marchand, Advertising and the American Dream, p. 18, 21;
143. Stephen Fox, The Mirror Makers: A History of American Advertising and Its Creators (New York, 1984), p. 97-8
144. Roland Marchand, Advertising and the American Dream, p. 23
145. George French, Twentieth century advertising (New York, 1926), p. 62
146. T.J.Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Roots of the Consumer Culture, 1880-1930," The Culture of Consumption: Critical Essays in American History, 1880-1980, eds. Richard Fox and T.J. Jackson-Lears (New York, 1983): 3-38
147. Stephen Fox, The Mirror Makers: A History of American Advertising and Its Creators, p. 101-12;
148. T.J.Jackson Lears, "From Salvation to Self-Realization," p. 29-38
149. While it is hard to establish the exact growth in numbers, since the U.S. census classifies magazines under the general heading of " periodicals", the number of monthly periodicals, which is a good barometer of the magazine trend, grew from 3,415 in 1920 to 4,110 in 1930 and dropped back to 3,501 in 1940. Aggregate per-issue circulation was reported at 128,621,000 in 1923 and going up to 202,022,000 in 1929, but dropping to 174,759,000 in 1933. The magazine industry definitely soared in the 1920s. See Theodore Peterson, Magazines in the twentieth century (Urbana, IL, 1956), p. 53-54.
150. These visual media came in response to the needs of flourishing capitalism. A giant billboard could be noticed by great masses of people without any effort on their part. The New York Traffic Audit Bureau, which leased the sites of the city, estimated that a big sign in Times Square attracted more than a million pairs of eyes in twenty-four hours, not to mention the millions who saw it through the cinema and illustrated magazines without ever visiting New York (ErnestTurner, The Shocking History of Advertising [New York, 1953] p. 294-297.)
151. Visual messages also suited the accelerated pace of life. They were meant to catch the eye of men and women who "[took] their knowledge, like their lunches, on the run" (anonymously quoted in T.J.Jackson-Lears, "The Rise of American Advertising," p. 160).
152. Outdoor signs were a much more democratic information tool than any print media. An advertising textbook of the epoch recommends using street-car cards, billboards and outdoor display because "they are for the eyes of everyone, regardless of wealth and education ... Pictures and color speak a more universal language than words." (Harry Tipper, The Principles of Advertising [New York, 1920], p. 190.)
153. Harry Tipper, The Principles of Advertising, p. 159
154. Ernest Turner, The Shocking History of Advertising, p. 321
155. Ernest Turner, The Shocking History of Advertising, p. 297
156. T.J.Jackson-Lears, "The Rise of American Advertising," p. 165
157. In 1931 Gallup established that the comic strip was by far the most popular part of newspapers, its readership surpassing the readership of the leading news stories (Roland Marchand, Advertising and the American Dream, p. 110.)
158. Ernest Turner, The Shocking History of Advertising, p. 336
159. As the Frankfurt scholars have pointed out, mass culture creates standardized art products to be offered to great masses of people and, therefore, has a standardizing effect on popular taste and our sense of aesthetics. See Theodore Adorno, The Culture Industry: Selected Essays on Mass Culture (London, 1991);
160. John Storey, "Popular Music," Cultural Studies and the Studies of Popular Culture, ed. John Storey (Athens, GA, 1996): 93-112;
161. Dwight McDonald, "A Theory of Mass Culture," Cultural Studies and the Studies of Popular Culture, ed. John Storey (Athens, GA, 1996): 22-36, etc.
162. Japan, Russia, Indonesia, Greece and Turkey are among those that do not use laugh tracks in their indigenous programming and American serials are often shown elsewhere with the laugh tracks cut back. For example, Bewitched is aired in Brazil without the laugh track, and in France - with reduced laugh tracks. (Victor Mascaro, http://members.tripod.com/yagazuze/international.html)
163. As comedy writer Robert Orben said: "Now [. . .] when a TV father comes down to breakfast and says 'good morning', the laugh track has already started to giggle." (Robert Orben, "The Studio Audience," TV Book: The Ultimate Television Book, ed. Judy Fireman (New York, 1977): 43-45
164. Dick Hobson, "The Hollywood Sphinx and His Laff Box," Television: A Selection of Readings from TV Guide Magazine, ed. Barry Coles (New York, 1970): 194-200;
165. "Laughing for Dollars," Good Housekeeping, September 1998
166. Robert Provine, among others, explains the contagious effect of laughter in Laughter: A Scientific Investigation (New York, 2000).
167. Fred Schroeder, "Say Cheese! The Revolution in the Aesthetics of Smiles," Journal of Popular Culture 32 (2) (1998): 103-145, p. 127
168. Matt Loney, "First 'Smiley' Shows Its Face," http://news.com.com/2100-1023-957817.html
169. "Smiley Inventor Dies at 79," Associated Press, Worcester MA, 4/13/2001 http://www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_246258.html?menu=news. latestheadlines
170. Arlie Hochschild, in The Managed Heart, argues that corporations use human feeling as a commodity since they pay for emotion labor as part of the job.
171. As she says, "Cheerfulness in the line of duty becomes something different from ordinary good cheer" ( Hochschild, The Managed Heart, p. 189 .)
172. Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart, p. 119
173. Arlie Hochschild, Managed Heart, p. 148
174. Arlie Hochschild, Managed Heart, p. 114-116
175. Arlie Hochschild, Managed Heart, p. 91-93
176. Hochschild explains that effective emotion management, just as Stanislavski's theater school, triggers genuine feeling. Arlie Hochschild, Managed Heart, p. 38-48
177. Arlie Hochschild, Managed Heart, p. 121
178. Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart, p. 131
179. Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart, p. 4
180. Martin Tolich, in "Alienating and Liberating Emotions at Work: Supermarket Clerks' Performance of Customer Service" Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 22 (3) (1993): 361-381,
181. James Sass, in Emotional Labor as Cultural Performance in a Non-Profit Nursing Home, Doctoral Dissertation (Arizona State, 1997),
182. and Cas Wouters, in "The Sociology of Emotions and Flight Attendants: Hochschild's Managed Heart," Theory, Culture and Society 6 (1989): 95-123, argue that the locus of control in emotion management at work rests with the individual.
183. Martin Tolich, "Alienating and Liberating Emotions at Work"
184. Arlie Hochschild, in The Managed Heart, p. 57, states that these social groups do more emotion management than others; however, she means that they do the kind of emotion management she found on Delta, which is, sustaining cheerfulness.
185. James Sass, Emotional Labor as Cultural Performance in a Non-Profit Nursing Home, p. 171
186. James Sass, Emotional Labor as Cultural Performance in a Non-Profit Nursing Home, p. 48
187. Cas Wouters, "The Sociology of Emotions and Flight Attendants: Hochschild's Managed Heart"
188. Cas Wouters, "The Sociology of Emotions and Flight Attendants: Hochschild's Managed Heart," p. 116
189. Arlie Hochschild, The Managed Heart, p. 224
190. Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process
191. Elias' view of emotions has recently been boosted by Luria's neurological discovery that learning new practices actually reshapes our neural pathways and the human nerve system (see Aleksandr Luria, Human Brain and Psychological Processes, New York, 1966.)
192. The cultural habits we adopt may turn into biological mechanisms. Elias made that assumption on the basis of historical data 30 years before Luria conducted his scientific experiments. Others had implied it too: for example, Georg Simmel had shown how the behavior of faithfulness substituted for the original psychic states that had brought about a relationship, thus "giving rise to deeper and more adequate feeling states" (The Sociology of Georg Simmel, Glencoe, IL, 1950, p. 381.) Obviously, culturally trained behavior changes our emotional capacities.
193. See Abram de Swaan, "From Management by Command to Management by Negotiation," The Management of Normality: Critical Essays in Health and Welfare (London/New York, 1990);
194. Jürgen Gerhards, "The Changing Culture of Emotions in Modern Society" Social Science Information 28 (4) (1989): 737-754;
195. Ronald Inglehart, Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society (Princeton, NJ, 1990);
196. Cas Wouters, "Formalization and Informalization: Changing Tension Balances in Civilizing Processes," Theory, Culture and Society 3 (2) (1986): 1-18;
197. Hans Bertens, "Why Molly Doesn't: Humanism's Long, Long Shadow," Emotion in Postmodernism, eds. Gerhard Hoffman and Alfred Horning (Heidelberg, Germany, 1997): 25-37;
198. Willem Mastenbroek, "Organizational Behavior as Emotion Management," http://www.hollandconsultinggroup.com/publicaties/artikelen/ WM4.HTM#E43E36 (2000), and others.
199. Elias argues that Europe underwent powerful processes of emotion formalization that enabled people to form the modern society (Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process.)
200. Peter Stearns, American Cool, p. 186
201. Cas Wouters, "Etiquette Books and Emotion Management"
202. Cas Wouters, "Etiquette Books and Emotion Management," p. 300
203. Some of these cultural trends have been noted by individual American voices, too. For example, Andy Rooney recently said on CBS: "I don't know why we're so evasive. People are not honest about what they say. Part of it passes for good manners, and part of it is wanting to be liked by not being negative about things. Negative does not have a good reputation as compared with affirmative." (Quoted in Warren St. John, "Defending the Right Not to Have a Nice Day," New York Times, 5/25/2003, Style Desk: Section 9, Page 1.)
204. Wouters defines national styles of emotion management theoreticizing that in each country the specific processes of social integration between rising and falling social strata formed the national style of emotion management. (Cas Wouters, "Etiquette Books and Emotion Management.")
205. John Whyte, American Words and Ways Especially for German Americans (New York, 1943), p. 139
206. Dean Peabody, National Characteristics (London, 1985)
207. Julian Leff, "The Cross-Cultural Study of Emotions" Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 1 (4) (1977): 317-350, p. 323;
208. Anthony Marsella, "Depressive Experience and Disorder across Cultures" Handbook o/Cross-Cultural Psychopathology, eds. Harry Triandis and Juris Draguns, vol. 6 (London, 1980): 237-289, p. 242;
209. Robert Levy, "Emotion, Knowing and Culture" Culture Theory: Essays on Mind, Self and Emotion, eds. Richard Shweder and Robert LeVine (Cambridge, 1984): 214-237, p. 230
210. Paul Heelas, "Emotion Talk across Cultures" The Emotions: Social, Cultural and Biological Dimensions, eds. Rom Harré and Gerrod Parrott (London, 1996): 171-199, p. 178
211. See, for example, Morton Beiser, "A Study of Depression among Traditional Africans, Urban North Americans and South East Asian Refugees," Culture and Depression: Studies in the Anthropology and Cross-Cultural Psychiatry of Affect and Disorder, eds. Arthur Kleinman and Byron Good (Berkeley, 1985): 272-298
212. Anthony Marsella, "Depressive Experience and Disorder across Cultures," p. 238
213. Catherine Lutz, "Depression and the Translation of Emotional Worlds"
214. Catherine Lutz, "Depression and the Translation of Emotional Worlds," p. 70
215. Mike Martin, "Depression and Moral Health: A Response to the Commentary," Philosophy, Psychiatry and Psychopathology 6 (4) (1999): 295-298, p. 297
216. Anthony Marsella, "Depressive Experience and Disorder across Cultures"
217. Philip Cushman, Constructing the Self, Constructing America: A Cultural History of Psychotherapy (Reading, MA, 1995)
218. Peter Steams, American Cool, p. 251
219. National Public Radio, "Calculating the Costs of Mental Health Care," Morning Edition, 08/26/2004
220. Warren St. John, "Defending the Right Not to Have a Nice Day"
221. Philip Broughton, "Psychologists Pessimistic about Effects of Optimism Attack Tyranny of the Positive Attitude'," The Daily Telegraph, 8/16/2000
222. Christopher Smithwick, "Tyranny of the Good," Bowdoin Orient 21, 4/12/2002
223. Warren St. John, "Defending the Right Not to Have a Nice Day"
224. Peter Kramer, "I'm in Favor of Sadness," Self, June 2002, p. 88
225. Ellen Willis, Don't Think, Smile: Notes on a Decade of Denial (Boston, 1999)
226. In a public talk delivered at New York University's Forum Ambiguities or Intervention: Iraq and Beyond, on 11/22/2002, Todd Gitlin criticized the use of cheerfulness in political propaganda.
227. Erica Goode, "Seeing Pessimism's Place in a Smiley-Faced World," The New York Times: Health and Fitness, 8/15/2000
228. Warren St. John, "Defending the Right Not to Have a Nice Day"