Emulation and empowerment: Material, social, and economic dynamics in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Virginia

International Journal of Historical Archeology

Volumn 6, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 253-298

  Bell, Alison ^a  

^a WASHINGTON AND LEE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Class relations; Emulation; Rural communities; Social identity

Indexed keywords

CLASS; EIGHTEENTH CENTURY; EMPOWERMENT; IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION; NINETEENTH CENTURY;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 0036946530     PISSN: 10927697     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1021310431135     Document Type: Article

References (135)

1. Appadurai, A. (1986). Introduction: Commodities and the politics of value. In Appadurai, A. (ed.), The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 3-36.
2. Appleby, J. O. (1978). Economic Thought and Ideology in Seventeenth-Century England, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
3. Barthes, R. (1972). Mythologies (Lavers, A., Trans.), Hill and Wang, New York.
4. Beaudry, M. C., Cook, L. J, and Mrozowski, S. A. (1991). Artifacts and active voices: Material culture as social discourse. In McGuire, R. H., and Paynter, R. (eds.), The Archaeology of Inequality, pp. 150-191. Blackwell, Oxford.
5. Beeman, R. (1984). The Evolution of the Southern Backcountry: Lunenburg County 1746-1832, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
6. Bell, A. (1994). History, Houses, 'Many Changes,' and Continuity: Henry Glassie's Folk Housing in Middle Virginia Revisited. MS on file, Kevin Barry Perdue Archive of Traditional Culture, Department of Anthropology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville.
7. Bell, A. (2000). Conspicuous Production: Agricultural and Domestic Material Culture in Virginia, 1700-1900, PhD Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville.
8. Bell, A. (2001). Emulation and social identity: Perspectives from Historic Virginia. Paper presented at the Society for American Archaeology meeting, New Orleans, LA.
9. Bell, A., and Deetz, J. (1995). Folk housing revisited. Louisa County Historical Magazine 26(2): 59-71.
10. Benes, P. (1987). Early American Probate Inventories, Boston University, Boston.
11. Billings, W. M., Selby, J. E. and Tate, T. W. (1986). Colonial Virginia: A History, KTO press, White Plains, New York.
12. Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
13. Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste (Nice, R., Trans.), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
14. Bourdieu, P. (1990). In Other Words: Essays toward a Reflexive Sociology, Stanford University Press, Stanford.
15. Braudel, F. (1981). Civilization and Capitalism, 15th-18th Century, Vol. 1: The Structures of Everyday Life: The Limits of the Possible (Reynolds, S., Trans.), University of California Press, Berkeley.
16. Breen, T. H. (1986). An empire of goods: The anglicization of Colonial America, 1690-1776. Journal of British Studies 25(Oct.): 467-499.
17. Breen, T. H. (1994). 'Baubles of Britain': The American and consumer revolutions of the eighteenth century. In Carson, C., Hoffman, R., and Albert, P. J. (eds.), Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, pp. 444-482.
18. Bronner, S. J. (1986). Grasping Things: Folk Material Culture and Mass Society at America, University Press of Kentucky, Lexington. KY.
19. Brown, R. E., and Brown, B. K. (1964). Virginia, 1705-1786: Democracy or Aristocracy? Michigan State University Press, East Lansing.
20. Bushman, R. L. (1993). The Refinement of America: Persons, Houses, Cities, Alfred A. Knopf, New York.
21. Calvert, K. (1994). The function of fashion in eighteenth-century America. In Carson, C., Hoffman, R., and Alben, P. J. (eds.), Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, pp. 252-283.
22. Campbell, C. (1987). The Romantic Ethic and the Spirit of Modern Consumerism, Basil Blackwell, Oxford.
23. Carr, L. G. (1988). Diversification in the Colonial Chesapeake: Somerset, Maryland in comparative perspective. In Carr, L. G., Morgan, P. D., and Russo, J. B. (eds.), Colonial Chesapeake Society, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, pp. 342-388.
24. Carr, E. R. (2000). Meaning (and) materiality: Rethinking contextual analysis through cellar-set houses. Historical Archaeology 34(4): 32-45.
25. Carr, L. G., Morgan, P. D., and Russo, J. B. (eds.) (1988). Colonial Chesapeake Society, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.
26. Carr, L. G., and Walsh, L. S. (1980). Inventories and the analysis of wealth and consumption patterns in St. Mary's County, Maryland, 1658-1777. Historical Methods 13(2): 81-104.
27. Carr, L. G., and Walsh, L. S. (1994). Changing lifiestyles and consumer behavior in the colonial Chesapeake. In Carson, C., Hoffman, R., and Albert, P. J. (eds.), Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, pp. 59-166.
28. Carson, B. (1990). Ambitious Appetites: Dining, Behavior, and Patterns of Consumption in Federal Washington, The American Institute of Architects Press, Washington, DC.
29. Carson, C. (1994).The consumer revolution in colonial British America; Why demand? In Carson, C., Hoffman, R., and Albert, P. J. (eds.), Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, pp. 483-697.
30. Carson, C., Barka, N. F., Kelso, W. M., Stone, G. W., and Upton, D. (1981). Impermanent architecture in the Southern American colonies. Winterthur Portfolio 16(2/3): 135-196.
31. Chappell, E. A. (1994). Housing a nation: The transformation of living standards in early America. In Carson, C., Hoffman, R., and Albert, P. J. (eds.), Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, pp. 167-232.
32. Cummings, A. L. (ed.) (1964). Rural Household Inventories: Establishing the Names, Uses and Furnishings of Rooms in the Colonial New England Home, 1675-1775, Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, Boston.
33. Deagan, K. (1991). Historical archaeology's contributions to our understanding of early America. In Falk, L. (ed.). Historical Archaeology in Global Perspective, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
34. Deetz, J. (1993). Flowerdew Hundred: The Archaeology of a Virginia Plantation, 1619-1864, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.
35. Deetz, J. (1996). In Small Things Forgotten: An Archaeology of Early American Life, Anchor Books, Doubleday, New York.
36. Deetz. J., and Deetz, P. S. (2000). The Times of Their Lives: Life, Love, and Death in Plymouth Colony, W. H. Freeman and Company, New York.
37. DeIle. J. A. (1999). The landscapes of class negotiation on coffee plantations in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica, 1790-1850. Historical Archaeology 33(l): 136-158.
38. Delle, J. A., Mrozowski, S. A., and Paynter, R. (eds.) (2000). Lines that Divide: Historical Archaeologies of Race, Class, and Gender, University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.
39. Douglas, M., and Isherwood, B. (1979). The World of Goods, Basic Books, New York.
40. Essex County Deed and Will Books 12. 1704-1707. Essex County Clerk's Office, Tappahannock, Virgini.
41. Essex County Will Books, 6, 1735-1743. Essex County Clerk's Office, Tappahannock, Virginia.
42. Essex County Will Books, 12, 1762-1775. Essex County Clerk's Office, Tappahannock, Virginia.
43. Essex County Will Books, 21, 1826-1829. Essex County Clerk's Office, Tappahannock, Virginia.
44. Featherstone, M. (1990). Perspectives on consumer culture. Sociology 24(l): 5-22.
45. Fine, B., and Leopold, E. (1990). Consumerism and the Industrial Revolution, Social History 12(2): 151-179.
46. Friedlander, A. ( 1991). House and Barn: The wealth of farmers, 1795-1815. Historical Archaeology 25(2):15-29.
47. Glassie, H. (1975). Folk Housing its Middle Virginia: A Structural Analysis of Historic Artifacts, University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.
48. Glassie, H. (1987). Vernacular Architecture and Society. In Ingersoll, D.W., Jr., and Bronitsky, G. (eds.), Mirror and Metaphor: Material and Social Constructions of Reality, University Press of America, Lanham, MD, pp. 229-245.
49. Glassie, H. (1988). Meaningful things and appropriate myths: The artifact's place in American studies. In St. George, R. B. (ed.), Material Life in America, 1600-1860, Northeastern University Press, Boston, pp. 63-92.
50. Glassie, H. (1995). Tradition. Journal of American Folklore 108(430): 395-412.
51. Glassie, H. (2000). Vernacular Architecture, Indiana University Press, Bloomington.
52. Glennie, P. (1995). Consumption within historical studies. In Miller, D. (ed.), Acknowledging Consumption: A Review of New Studies, Routledge, London, pp. 164-203.
53. Groover, M. D. (2000). Creolization and the archaeology of multiethnic households in the American South. Historical Archaeology 34(3): 99-106.
54. Hall, M. (2000). Archaeology and the Modern World: Colonial Transcripts South Africa and the Chesapeake, Routledge, London.
55. Harris, M. H. (1936). A History of Louisa County, Virginia. The Dietz Press, Richmond, VA.
56. Hawley, A. L. (1987). The meaning of absence: Household inventories in Surry County, Virginia, 1690-1715. In Benes, P. (ed.). Early American Probate Inventories, Boston University Press, Boston, pp. 23-31.
57. Henretta, J. A. (1978). Families and farms: Mentalite in pre-industrial America. William and Mary Quarterly 35: 4-32.
58. Herman, B. L. (1992). The Stolen House, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville.
59. Hodder, I. (1986). Reading the Past: Current Approaches to Interpretation in Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
60. Hodder, I. (2000). Agency and individuals in long-term processes. In Dobres, M.-A., and Robb, J. E. (eds.), Agency in Archaeology, Routledge, London, pp. 21-33.
61. Hudgins, C. (1990). Robert 'King' Carter and the landscape of tidewater Virginia in the eighteenth century. In Kelso, K. M., and Most, R. (eds.), Earth Patterns: Essays in Landscape Archaeology, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, pp. 59-70.
62. Ingersoll, D. W., Jr., and Bronitsky, G. (eds.) (1987). Mirror and Metaphor: Material and Social Constructions of Reality, University Press of America, Lanham, MA.
63. Isaac, R. (1982). The Transformation of Virginia, 1740-1790, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.
64. Izard, H. V. (1997). Random or Systematic?: An evaluation of the probate process. Winterthur Portfolio 32(2/3):147-167.
65. Johnson, T. C. (1903). The Life and Letters of Robert Lewis Dabney, The Presbyterian Committee of Publication, Richmond, VA.
66. Johnson, M. (1996). An Archaeology of Capitalism, Blackwell, Oxford.
67. Joseph, J. W. (1993). White columns and Black hands: Class and classification in the plantation ideology of the Georgia and South Carolina lowcountry. Historical Archaeology 27(3): 57-73.
68. Kelso, W. M. (1984). Kingsmill Plantations, 1619-1800. Archaeology of Country Life in Colonial Virginia, Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
69. Kelso, W. M. (1992). Big things remembered: Anglo-Virginian houses, armorial devices, and the impact ofcommon sense. In Yentsch, A. E.; and Beaudry, M. C. (eds.), The Art and Mystery of Historical Archaeology: Essays in Honor of James Deetz, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 127-145.
70. Kryder-Reid, E. (1994). 'As is the gardener, so is the garden': The archaeology of landscape as myth. In Little, B.J., and Shackel, P.A. (eds.), Historical Archaeology of the Chesapeake, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, pp. 131-148,
71. Kulikoff, A. (1986). Tobacco and Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake, 1680-1800, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.
72. Leone, M. (1988). The Georgian order as the order of merchant capitalism in Annapolis, Maryland. In Leone, M., and Potter, P. (eds.), The Recovery of Meaning: Historical Archaeology in the Eastern United States, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, pp. 235-261.
73. Leone, M. P., and Potter, P. B., Jr. (1999). Where the questions come from. In Leone, M. P., and Potter, P. B., Jr. (eds.). Historical Archaeologies of Capitalism, Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York, pp. 21-22.
74. Leone, M. P., and Shackel, P. (1987). Forks, clocks, and power. In Ingersoll, D. W., Jr., and Bronitsky, G. (eds.), Mirror and Metaphor: Material and Social Constructions of Reality, University Press of America, Lanham. MA, pp. 45-62.
75. Little, B. J. (1994). People with history: An update on historical archaeology in the United States. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 1(l): 5-40.
76. Louisa County Deed Books E, 1774-1784. Louisa County Clerk's Office, Louisa, Virginia.
77. Louisa County Inventory Book, 1743-1766. Louisa County Clerk's Office, Louisa, Virginia.
78. Louisa County Land Tax Records, 1830-1876. Louisa County Clerk's Office, Louisa, Virginia.
79. Louisa County Personal Property Tax Records, 1782 and 1820. Louisa County Clerk's Office, Louisa, Virginia.
80. Louisa County Will Books I, 1745-1761. Louisa County Clerk's Office, Louisa, Virginia.
81. Louisa County Will Books II, 1842-1847. Louisa County Clerk's Office, Louisa, Virginia.
82. Main, G. L. (1982). Tobacco Colony: Life in Early Maryland, 1650-1720, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
83. Main, G. L. (1987). The distribution of goods in colonial New England: A subregional approach. In Benes, P. (ed.), Early American Probate Inventories, Boston University Press, Boston, pp. 153-168.
84. Markell, A. B. (1994). Solid Statements: Architecture, manufacturing, and social change in seventeenth-century Virginia. In Little, B. J., and Shackel, P. A. (eds.), Historical Archaeology of the Chesapeake, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, pp. 51-64.
85. Martin, A. S. (1994). 'Fashionable sugar dishes, latest fashion ware': The creamware revolution in the eighteenth-century Chesapeake. In Little, B. J., and Shackel, P. A. (eds.), Historical Archaeology of the Chesapeake, Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, DC, pp. 169-187.
86. Martin, A. S. (1996). Frontier boys and country cousins: The context for choice in eighteenth-century consumerism. In DeCunzo, L. A., and Herman, B. L. (eds.), Historical Archaeology and the Study of American Culture, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, Winterthur, Delaware, NY, pp. 71-102.
87. Martin, A. S. (2000).The role of pewter as missing artifact: Consumer attitudes toward tablewares in late 18th century Virginia. In Brauner, D. R. (compiler), Approaches to Material Culture Research for Historical Archaeologists, 2nd edition. Society for Historical Archaeology, California, PA. pp.248-274,
88. McGuire, R. H., and Paynter, R. (eds.) (1991). The Archaeology of Inequality, Blackwell, Oxford.
89. McKendrick, N. (1982). Commercialization and the economy. In McKendrick, N., Brewer, J., and Plumb, J. H. (eds.), The Birth of a Consumer Society: The Commercialization of Eighteenth-Century England, Europa Publications, London, pp. 9-194.
90. McKendrick, N., Brewer, J., and Plumb, J. H. (1982). The Birth of a Consumer Society: The Commercialization of Eighteenth-century England, Europa Publications. London.
91. Meade, R. D. (1957). Patrick Henry: Patriot in the Making, Vol. I, J. B. Lippincott, Philadelphia.
92. Miller, D. (1995a). Consumption as the vanguard of history: A polemic by way of introduction. In Miller, D. (ed.), Acknowledging Consumption: A Review of New Studies, Routledge, London, pp. 1-57.
93. Miller, D. (1995b). Consumption studies as the transformation of anthropology. In Miller, D. (ed.), Acknowledging Consumption: A Review of New Studies, Routledge, London, pp. 264-295.
94. Mrozowski, S. A. (2000). The growth of managerial capitalism and the subtleties of class analysis in historical archaeology. In Delle, J. A., Mrozowski, S. A., and Paynter, R. (eds.), Lines that Divide: Historical Archaeologies of Race, Class, and Gender, University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, pp.276-305.
95. Mullins, P. R. (1999). Race and Affluence: An Archaeology of African America and Consumer Choice. Kluwer, New York.
96. Neiman, F. D. (1980). The 'Manner House' Before Stratford (Discovering the Clifts Plantation), A Stratford Handbook, Stratford, VA.
97. Neiman, F. D. (1986). Domestic architecture at the Clifts Plantation: The social context of early Virginia building. In Upton, D., and Vlach J. M., (eds.), Common Places: Readings in Vernacular Architecture, University of Georgia Press, Athens, pp. 292-314.
98. Nicholls, M. L. (1991). Piedmont plantations and farms: Transplanting tidewater traditions? The Magazine of Albemarle County History 49: 1-17.
99. Paynter, R. (1988). Steps to an archaeology of capitalism. In Leone, M. P., and Potter P. B., (eds.), The Recovery of Meaning: Historical Archaeology in the Eastern United States, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, pp. 407-433.
100. Potter, P. B., Jr. (1991). What is the use of plantation archaeology? Historical Archaeology 25(3): 94-107.
101. Potter, P. B., Jr. (1994). Public Archaeology in Annapolis: A Critical Approach to History in Maryland's Ancient City, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
102. Preucel, R. W. (1995). The postprocessual condition. Journal of Archaeological Research 3(2): 147-175.
103. Purser, M. (1999). Ex Occidente Lux? An archaeology of later capitalism in the nineteenth-century west. In Leone, M. P., and Potter, P. B., Jr. (eds.), Historical Archaeologies of Capitalism, Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York, pp. 115-141.
104. Rutman. D. B., and Rutman, A. H. (1984a). A Place in Time: Middlesex County, Virginia, 1650-1750, W.W. Norton, New York.
105. Rutman, D. B., and Rutman, A. H. (1984b). A Place in Time; Explicatus, W. W. Norton, New York.
106. Scott, E. M. (1994). Through the lens of gender: Archaeology, inequality. and those 'of little note.' In Scott, E.M. (ed.), Those of Little Note: Gender, Race and Class in Historical Archaeology, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
107. Shackel, P. A. (1992). Probate inventories in historical archaeology: A review and alternatives. In Little, B.J. (ed.), Text-Aided Archaeology, CRC Press, Baca Raton, FL, pp. 205-215.
108. Shackel, P. A. (1993). Personal Discipline and Material Culture: An Archaeology of Annapolis, Maryland 1695-1870, University of Tennessee Press. Knoxville.
109. Shackel, P. A. (2000). Craft to wage labor: Agency and resistance in American historical archaeology. In Dobres, M.-A., and Robb, J. E. (eds.), Agency in Archaeology, Routledge, London, pp. 232-255.
110. Shammas, C. (1990). The Pre-Industrial Consumer in England and America, Clarendon Press,Oxford.
111. Shanks, M., and Tilley, C. (1987). Social Theory and Archaeology, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
112. Slaughter, J. B. (1985). Settlers, Southerners, Americans: The History of Essex County, Virginia 1608-1984, Walsworth Press, Salem, WV.
113. Smith, A. (1777). The Theory of Moral Sentiments; or, An Essay Towards an Analysis of the Principles by Which Men Naturally Judge Concerning the Conduct and Character. First of Their Neighbors, and Aftemards of Themselves, J. Beatty and C. Jackson, Dublin, Ireland.
114. Sobel, M. (1987). The World They Made Together: Black and White Values in Eighteenth-Century Virginia. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
115. Spencer-Wood, S. M. (ed.) (1987). Consumer Choice in Historical Archaeology, Plenum Press, New York.
116. Spencer-Wood, S. M. (1994). Diversity and nineteenth-century domestic reform: Relationships among classes and ethnic groups. In Scott, E. M. (ed.), Those of Little Note: Gender, Race and Class in Historical Archaeology, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
117. Stone. G. W., Little, J. G., III, and Israel, S. (1972). Ceramics from the John Hicks Site, 1723-1743: The material culture. In Quimby, I. M. G. (ed.), Ceramics in America, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, pp. 103-139.
118. Sweeney, K. M. (1987). Using tax lists to detect biases in Probate inventories. In Benes, P. (ed.), Early American Probate Inventories, Boston University Press, Boston, pp. 32-40.
119. Sweeney, K. M. (1994). High-style vernacular: Lifestyles of the colonial elite. In Carson, C., Hoffman, R., and Albert, P. J. (eds.), Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, pp. 1-58.
120. Tocqueville, A. de (1945 [1835]). Democracy in America, Vol. I, Random House, New York.
121. True, R. B. (1976). Lund Transactions in Louisa County, Virginia. 1765-1812: A Quantitative Analysis, PhD Dissertation, Department of History, University of Virginia, Charlottesville.
122. Upton, D. (1986). Vernacular domestic architecture in eighteenth-century Virginia. In Upton, D., and Vlach, J. M. (eds.), Common Places: Readings in American Vernacular Architecture, University of Georgia Press, Athens, pp. 315-335.
123. Veblen, T. (1994 [1899]). The Theory of the Leisure Class. Dover Publications, New York.
124. Virginia Land Patents and Grants, Patent Book Number 13, 1725-1730. Library of Virginia Archives, Richmond.
125. Virginia Land Patents and Grants, Patent Book Number 14, 1728-1732. Library of Virginia Archives, Richmond.
126. Walsh, L. S. (1989). Plantation management in the Chesapeake, 1620-1820. Journal of Economic History XLIX(2): 393-406.
127. Weatherill, L. (1988). Consumer Behavior and Material Culture in Britain 1660-1760, Routledge, London.
128. Wells, C. (1993). The planter's prospect: Houses, outbuildings, and rural landscapes in eighteenth-century Virginia. Winterthur Portfolio 28: 1-31.
129. Wenger, M. (1986). The central passage in Virginia: Evolution of an eighteenth-century living space. In Wells, C. (ed.), Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture II, University of Missouri Press, Columbia, pp. 137-149.
130. Wenger, M. (1989). The Dining Room in Early Virginia. In Carter, T., and Herman. B. L. (eds.), Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture III, University of Missouri Press, Columbia, pp. 149-159.
131. Wobst, H. M. (2000). Agency in (spite of) material culture. In Dobres, M.-A., and Robb, J. E. (eds.), Agency in Archaeology, Routledge, London, pp. 40-50.
132. Wolff, E. (1995). How the Pie is Sliced: America's Growing Concentration of Wealth. The American Prospect 6(22): 58-64.
133. Wolff, E. (1996). Time for a wealth tax? Boston Review, Feb./March 21(l): 3-6.
134. Wurst, L., and Fitts. R. K. (1999). Why confront class? Historical Archaeology 33(1): 1-6.
135. Zinn, H. (1995). A People's History of the United States, 1492-Present, Harper Perennial, New York.