Touching friendship beyond friendship: Friendship and citizenship in global politics

Alternatives

Volumn 26, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 143-173

  Farrands, Chris ^a  

^a NOTTINGHAM TRENT UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 24944553790     PISSN: 03043754     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030437540102600203     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. R. C. Zaehner, ed., The Bhagavad-Gita (Oxford: Claredon, 1969).
2. Seamus Heaney, ed., Beowulf (London: Faber, 1999).
3. Easy Rider (dir. Dennis Hopper), 1969;
4. Badlands (dir. Terrence Malick), 1973;
5. Thelma and Louise (dir. Ridley Scott), 1990;
6. Central Station (Centrao da Brasil) (dir. Walter Salles), 1998.
7. Plato, Lysis, in The Collected Dialogues, trans. J. Wright, Bollingen series 71 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton UP), pp. 145-186.
8. Antjie Krog, Country of My Skull (London: Cape, 1999).
9. Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995).
10. Will Kymlicka and W. Nonan, "Return of the Citizen: A Survey of Recent Work on Citizenship Theory," Ethics 104 (January 1994).
11. J. Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity (Cambridge: MIT Press).
12. Ibid.; but see also Connolly's critique: W. E. Connolly, Identity/Difference: Democratic Negotiations of Political Paradox (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell UP, 1991).
13. Andrew Linklater, Men and Citizens in the Theory of International Relations (Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1990).
14. Habermas, n. 8; David Held, Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance (Cambridge: Polity, 1995).
15. This article uses the convention of referring to the subject of study or discipline with uppercase initials - International Relations or IR - and the world and practices that are the objects of study with lowercase initial letters - international relations.
16. V. Jabri, "Restyling the Subject of Responsibility in International Relations," Millennium 27, no. 3 (1998): 591-611.
17. Esp. Mary Douglas, Implicit Meanings: Essays in Anthropology, 2d ed. (London: Routledge, 1993), esp. the introduction;
18. Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures, New York: Basic, 1973;
19. A. Coulson, Ethnomethodology (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1995).
20. Cynthia Enloe, The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War (Berkeley: U of California P, 1993);
21. Fiona Robinson, "Globalizing Care: Ethics, Feminist Theory, and IR," Alternatives 22, no. 1 (1997): 113-133.
22. Hidemi Suganami, "Stories of War Origins: A Narrative Theory of the Causes of War," Review of International Studies 23, no. 4 (1997): 401-418; Jabri, n. 13.
23. Cf. Roland Bleiker, "Forget IR Theory," Alternatives 22, no. 1 (1997): 57-86.
24. Jacques Derrida, Politics of Friendship, trans. George Collins (London, Verso, 1997).
25. Aristotle, Eudemian Ethics (Cambridge: Harvard UP, for Loeb Classical Editions, 1935).
26. Aristotle, The Nichomachean Ethics (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1962). The sustained discussion of friendship is in book 8.
27. M. Tullius Cicero, Laelius De Amicitia (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1923), in Latin, with translation by William Falconer.
28. There is a large literature on this classical debate; see esp. Horst Hutter, Politics as Friendship: The Origins of Classical Notions of Politics in the Theory and Practice of Friendship (Waterloo, Ont.: Wilfrid Laurier UP, 1978);
29. J. V. Schall, "Friendship and Political Philosophy," Review of Metaphysics 50 (September 1996): 121-141,
30. Kathy Eden, "'Between Friends All Is in Common' - the Erasmian Adage and Tradition," Journal of the History of Ideas 59, no. 3 (1998),
31. P. King and H. Devere, Friendship in Political Philosophy, 4 vols. (London: Cass, 1998).
32. have avoided using the expression civil society in this article with respect to Aristotle's writing since it is problematic: he has a sense of a political society beyond the individual, but he does not make the (much more modern) conventional distinctions between civil society and state in his accounts of polis or republic. I would argue that he conceives of the elements of civil society but has no such conception as a whole, and his idea of community is very specific. See also Aristotle, The Politics, trans. and ed. J. A. Sinclair (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1962), pp. 120-221, 166,
33. The Politics, ibid., editor's note.
34. Eudemian Ethics, n. 19, pp. 407-409;
35. The Politics, n. 22, pp. 142-143, 170-174.
36. Chris Farrands, "Citizenship and Friendship in Political Practice and the Possibility of a Global Citizenship," paper presented to the Cosmopolis Conference for the Network Institution for Global Democratization, U of Helsinki, June 2000.
37. Chris Farrands, "For the Spirit of Levinas: Against Reductive Strategies in International Relations," unpublished research paper, Nottingham Trent University.
38. This point is developed in E. Levinas, Autrement qu'Être, ou Au Delà de l'Essence (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1983).
39. L. Wittgenstein, On Certainty (Oxford: Blackwell, 1969), p. 61.
40. L. Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations (Oxford: Blackwell, 1958), p. 432;
41. Philosophical Investigations idem, n. 27, pp. 63-65.
42. Wittgenstein, n. 27, pp. 95-97.
43. Ibid., pp. 524, 601.
44. Wittgenstein, n. 28, p. 116.
45. Wittgenstein, n. 27, pp. 348-349, 413-433, 465, 533. The point about the performative role of language is also developed in "Performative Utterances," in J. L. Austin, Philosophical Papers, 3d ed, (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1979), pp. 233-252.
46. E. Levinas, Totalité et Infini (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1961).
47. This distinction is widespread in Levinas's work, but see esp. Ethics and Infinity: Conversations with Philip Nemo, trans. R. A. Cohen (Pittsburgh, Pa.: Duquesne UP, 1985), pp. 42-43,
48. "Truth of Disclosure and Truth of Testimony," in Basic Philosophical Writings, ed. A. Peperzak, S. Critchley, and R. Bernasconi (Bloomington: Indiana UP), pp. 98-107.
49. J. Derrida, On Grammatology, trans. G. C. Spivak (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1976).
50. The most difficult question about Derrida's Politics of Friendship (n. 18) is how far we should read it as consistent with the earlier book or his other pre-1990s work. But Derrida has himself often dismissed the idea that we should look to an author's intentions to read a text, so that at least that should not be an issue here.
51. Derrida, n. 35, Grammatology.
52. James Der Derian, "Post Theory: The Eternal Return of Ethics in IR," in M. W. Doyle and G. J. Ikenberry, eds., New Thinking in IR Theory (Boulder: Westview, 1997), p. 57.
53. Mark Lilla, "The Politics of Jacques Derrida," New York Review of Books, June 21, 1998, and http://jya.com/lilla_derrida.htm
54. New York Review of Books, Ibid., pp. 4-5.
55. Levinas, n. 33, and his Le Temps et L'Autre (Paris: PU de France, 1979).
56. Levinas, n. 26, pp. 85-88.
57. Particularly in the essay "Philosophy and Transcendence," in E. Levinas, Alterity and Transcendence, trans. M. B Smith (New York: Columbia UP, 1999), pp. 3-38.
58. M. de Montaigne, "De l'Amitié," essay in Oeuvres Complètes de Montaigne, ed. A. Thiboudet and M. Rat (Paris: PU de France, 1962), pp. 181-193.
59. Etienne de La Boétie, Discours de la Servitude Volontaire, ed. Maurice Rat (Paris: Presses UP de France, 1963).
60. Hutter, n. 22, pp. 47-48; Cicero, n. 21, pp. 143-145, 177-179.
61. The range of uses of friendship in Plato is indicated in Plato, n. 4, Complete Dialogues, p. 1653.
62. See references there to Lysis, The Symposium, The Republic, Gorgias, and the letters.
63. Aristotle, n. 20, book 8, p. 227 ff.
64. Politics, n. 22, p. 121.
65. Cicero, n. 21, pp. 125-129; Hutter, n. 22.
66. That background is explained in the editor's introduction to Cicero, Laelius, n. 21, pp. 103-105.
67. Aristotle, n. 20, Nichomachean Ethics, pp. 230-236.
68. La Boétie, n. 44, pp. 90-91; also Cicero, n. 21, p. 129.
69. Cf. M. Buber, Paths in Utopia (Boston: Beacon, 1958);
70. Donald D. Berry, Mutuality: The Vision of Martin Buber (Albany: SUNY Press, 1985). This touches also on the important debate between Levinas and Buber on mutuality, but for space reasons this is not developed here.
71. Aristotle, n. 20, pp. 243-244.
72. Summed up at one point, but then later denied, as "Not Friendship but Friends": Derrida n. 18, p. 297 ff. The fraternité at issue in the preceding twenty pages of Politics of Friendship is intertwined between a republican imagining, which Derrida admires in some respects but finds ultimately oppressive, and a more humane, and more Levinassian construction, which he clearly prefers but also mistrusts. Derrida uses ideas of fraternity with no single sense throughout the book, and his play with the expression is a part of his strategy of the continuous deferral of meaning.
73. Levinas, n. 33; and "The Ego and Totality," in Collected Philosophical Papers, Pittsburgh, Pa.: Duquesne UP, 1987, p. 44.
74. J. Kristeva, Étrangers à nous-mêmes (Paris: Gallimard, 1993), p. 125,
75. citing Saint Augustine, Epistolae, 192, pp. 1-2.
76. Derrida, n. 18, pp. 290, 300-306.
77. Bleiker, n. 17: 57-86.
78. Ibid., 57-64.
79. Zaki Laidi, A World without Meaning: The Crisis of Meaning in International Politics, trans. J. Burnham and J. Coulon (London: Routledge, 1998), pp. 1-3 and chapter 2.
80. Kymlicka, n. 6; Held, n. 11 "Kant";
81. A. Colas, "The Promises of International Civil Society," Global Society 11, no. 3 (1997): 261-277.
82. Habermas, n. 8; Held, n. 11.
83. See, for example, Y. Soysal, The Limits of Citizenship: Migrants and Postnational Membership in Europe (Chicago: Chicago UP, 1994).
84. Australia offers a parallel republican mythology to the French: see Meaghan Morris, "Lunching for the Republic: Feminism, the Media, and Identity Politics in the Australian Republican Debate," in D. Bennett, eds., Multicultural States: Rethinking Difference and Identity (London: Routledge, 1998), pp. 225-251.
85. Kymlicka, n. 6; T. Modood and P. Werbner, eds., The Politics of Mulliculturalism in the New Europe (London: Zed, 1997).
86. Kymlicka and Nonan, n. 7.
87. Derrida at one point (n. 18, p. 27) refers to the quotation as "an immense rumour"; it is suggested in both Montaigne and Nietzsche. Aristotle never uses the phrase in either of his Ethics.
88. Although the differently imagined "travelling together" and "fellow traveller" recur throughout.
89. See South Atlantic Monthly 97, 1 (1998),
90. special issue on "Friendship"; see esp. "The Beauty of Friendship," 5-22-a superb article by Agnes Heller.
91. Derrida, n. 18, pp. 75-81, 101-106.
92. Ibid., pp. 49-50; the reference is to Nietzsche's Human All Too Human (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1986), 2, para. 376.
93. C. Farrands, "Society, Modernity, and Social Change: Approaches to Nationalism and Identity," in J. Krause and N. Renwick, eds., Identities in International Relations (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996), p. 2.
94. Discussed in Aristotle, n. 20, book 9, chapter 4, p. 266.
95. Derrida, n. 18, pp. 89, 276; Levinas, Collected Papers, n. 56, p. 44.
96. Derrida opens the question of friendship and sexuality in several places in his book; e.g., n. 18, pp. 180, 196, 202, 256-264, emphasizing the potential decentering power of all sexualities.
97. Jeffrey Weeks, "The Sexual Citizen," Theory, Culture, and Society 15, nos. 3/4 (1998): 35-52.
98. Marilyn Friedman, What Are Friends For? Feminist Perspectives on Personal Relationships and Moral Theory (Ithaca N.Y.: Cornell UP, 1993); Robinson, n. 15.
99. Derrida is leery of concepts of community; on fraternity and community, see chapters 6 and 9.
100. A. Gorz, Capitalism, Socialism, Ecology, trans. Chris Turner (London: Verso, 1994), pp. 38-39, 67-74;
101. U. Beck, The Reinvention of Politics: Rethinking Modernity in the Global Social Order (Cambridge: Polity, 1997).
102. Buber, n. 53.
103. Quoted from the Quran, 43:13.
104. Cicero, n. 21, pp. 163-171; also in Derrida, n. 18, pp. 47-54.
105. Krog, n. 5, pp. 26-31.
106. Aristotle, n. 19, p. 367.
107. Derrida, n. 18, esp. chapters 2 and 7.
108. The original quotation is at John, 15: 13.
109. Cf. Heller, n. 70, pp. 9-12.
110. Derrida, n. 18, pp. 296-301.
111. Jean Laplanche, Essays on Otherness (London: Routledge, 1998).
112. Levinas, n. 42; Derrida, n. 18, pp. 34-35 - notably the discussion of Blake through chapter 3, and chapter 7, where one assumes that Derrida recognizes that the allusion of "he who accompanies me" is to the risen but not yet recognized Christ, as well as to any unnamed Other person encountered in uncertain circumstances. Cf. also Wilfred Owen's poem Strange Meeting: "I am the enemy you killed, my friend"; C. Day Lewis, ed., The Collected Poems of Wilfred Owen (London: Chatto & Windus, 1966), p. 36.
113. D. Schnapper, La communauté des citoyens: Sur l'idée moderne de la nation (Paris: Gallimard, 1994) gives a contemporary version of this mythology.
114. David Held, "Cosmopolitan Democracy and the Global Order: Reflections on the Two Hundredth Anniversary of Kant's 'Perpetual Peace,'" Alternatives 20, no. 4 (1995): 415-430.
115. The last point must be underlined: Held and his colleagues have not neglected the individual in their work, although he does so in this particular article; but even where they look more closely at the relations between the individual and citizenship, their account does not securely lodge the individual in their global politics.
116. Friedman, n. 78.
117. There is an important literature on this on the South Africa Truth and Reconciliation Commission: see esp. S. Nuttall and C. Coetzee, eds., Negotiating the Past: The Making of Memory in South Africa (Cape Town: Oxford UP, 1998), and Krog, n. 5.
118. Suganami, n. 16.
119. As Krog, n. 5, successfully shows.
120. Nuttall and Coetzee, n. 96; Itumeleng J. Mosala, Biblical Hermeneutics and Black Theology in South Africa (Grand Rapids, Mich: W. B. Eerdmans, 1989).
121. The story as narrative of exclusion, conflict, and possibility is beautifully expressed in a Lebanese context in Emily Nasrullah, A House Not Her Own: Stories from Beirut (Charlottetown [Prince Edward Island]: Gynergy Books, 1992).
122. Jules Verne, Around the World in Eighty Days, trans. J. and R. Baldick (London: Dent, 1968);
123. film: Around the World in Eighty Days (dir. Michael Anderson), 1956.
124. The story appears in many versions and has a number of dedicated Web sites. See J. Steptoe, ed., The Story of Jumping Mouse, 2d ed. (1985; Topeka, Kans.: Eco-Clad Books, 1999),
125. M. E. Marlow, ed., Jumping Mouse: A Story about Inner Trust (Charlottesville, Virg.: Hampton Roads, 1999). I owe the original reference to Rosie Farrands.
126. The reference is to King Lear, act 4, scene 6, and act 5, scene 3; in F. A. Foakes, ed., King Lear (London: Nelson, 1997), pp. 166-68; 277ff; and 353, 387.
127. The meanings it is possible to draw from Jumping Mouse are best explored through Native North American sources, including Web sites such as www.ilhawaii.net/∼stony/loreindex.html and books.valdosta.edu/ bib/nativeamc.htm. See also D. A. Leming and J. Page, The Mythology of Native North America (Oklahoma: U of Oklahoma P, 1998).
128. "The Story of Kan Turali, Son of Kannli Koja," in G. Lewis, ed., The Book of Dede Korkut (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1974), pp. 117-132.
129. The Book of Dede Korkut Ibid., p. 131.
130. The Politics, n. 22, p. 121.
131. Both cited above, n. 80.
132. On the enduring nature of friendship, see Eudemian Ethics (Aristotle, n. 19), p. 367.
133. Christopher Farrands and Patricia Stein Wrightson, "The Ambiguous Revival of 'Community' in IR: Religion, the Sacred, and Niebuhr on the Limits of Rationality," Theoria: Journal of Politics and Ethics 97 (June 2000): 57-81.