Globalizing care: Ethics, feminist theory, and international relations

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Volumn 22, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 113-133

  Robinson, Fiona ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 21744452098     PISSN: 03043754     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030437549702200105     Document Type: Article

References (65)

1. David R. Mapel and Terry Nardin, "Convergence and Divergence in International Ethics," in Terry Nardin and David R. Mapel, eds., Traditions of International Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 318-319.
2. Margaret Urban Walker, "Moral Understandings: Alternative 'Epistemology' for a Feminist Ethics,' in Virginia Held, ed., Justice and Care: Essential Readings in Feminist Ethics (Boulder: Westview, 1995), p. 148.
3. Alison M. Jaggar, "Caring as a Feminist Practice of Moral Reason," in Virginia Held, ed., note 2, pp. 194-196.
4. See Onora O'Neill, Faces of Hunger: An Essay on Poverty, Justice and Development (London: Allen and Unwin, 1986);
5. also see "Justice, Gender and International Boundaries," in Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum, eds., The Quality of Life (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993),
6. and "Justice, Capabilities and Vulnerabilities," in Martha Nussbaum and Jonathan Glover, eds., Women, Culture and Development: A Study in Human Capabilities. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).
7. See Charles Beitz, Political Theory and International Relations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979).
8. See Brian Barry, "Humanity and Justice in Global Perspective," in J. R. Pennock and J. W. Chapman, eds., Nomos XXIL (New York: New York University Press, 1982),
9. and "Do Countries Have Moral Obligations?: The Case of World Poverty," in Sterling M. McMurrin, ed., The Tanner Lectures on Human Values, 1981, vol. 2 (Salt Lake City: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
10. See Mervyn Frost, Towards a Normative Theory of International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986),
11. and Ethics and International Relations: A Constitutive Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996)
12. See Chris Brown, International Relations Theory: New Normative Approaches (Hemel Hempstead, England: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1993).
13. See Nardin and Mapel, eds., note 1.
14. See especially R. B. J. Walker, Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
15. See especially Andrew Linklater, Men and Citizens in the Theory of International Relations, 2nd edn. (London: MacMillan, 1990).
16. See Steven Forde, "Classical Realism,"
17. and Jack Donnelly, "Twentieth-Century Realism," in Mapel and Nardin, eds., note 1.
18. Onora O'Neill, Faces of Hunger: An Essay on Poverty, Development and Justice (London: Allen & Unwin, 1986), p. 38.
19. I have taken the term settled norms from Mervyn Frost, note 7.
20. Geoffrey Hawthorn, Enlightenment and Despair: A History of Social Theory, 2nd edn. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 262.
21. Walker, note 10, p. 156.
22. Ibid., pp. 50-51.
23. For an interesting discussion of postmodern ethics in international relations, see Molly Cochran, "Postmodernism, Ethics and International Political Theory," in Review of International Studies 21, no. 3, (July 1995): 237-250.
24. Brown, note 8.
25. Linklater, note 11.
26. Onora O'Neill uses the example of Walzer's work to demonstrate the inability of communitarianism to address questions of international ethics. She claims that because Walzer holds that the largest sphere of justice is the political community, rights and duties do not and cannot go beyond borders. A commitment to community is a commitment to the historical boundaries of political communities, whatever these happen to be and whatever injustices their constitution and their preservation cost. Thus O'Neill claims that when boundaries are taken wholly seriously, international justice is not just played down but "wiped off the ethical map." See O. O'Neill, "Justice, Gender and International boundaries," in R. Attfield and B. Wilkins, eds., International Justice and the Third World (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 56.
27. See Fiona Robinson, "Rethinking Ethics in an Era of Globalization," Sussex Papers in International Relations, no. 2 (Brighton: University of Sussex, 1996).
28. Walker, note 2, p. 139.
29. Although Gilligan's In a Different Voice is taken as path-breaking, she was clearly influenced by the work of Nancy Chodorow. See Nancy Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978).
30. Annette Baier, Moral Prejudices: Essays on Ethics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994), p. 63.
31. Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993), pp. 29, 105.
32. Joan Tronto, Moral Boundaries: A Political Argument for an Ethic of Care (London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 126-127.
33. Gilligan, note 26, pp. 35, 57.
34. Marilyn Friedman, What Are Friends For?: Feminist Perspectives on Personal Relationships and Moral Theory (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993), p. 233.
35. Tronto, note 27, identifies four elements of care: attentiveness, responsiveness, competence, and responsibility. Walker, note 2, isolates three elements of attention: contextual and narrative appreciation, and communication.
36. Baier, note 25; Friedman, note 29; Virginia Held, Feminist Morality: Transforming Culture, Society and Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993); Tronto, note 27.
37. Tronto, note 27, pp. 87-88.
38. O'Neill, note 21, p. 55.
39. Tronto, note 27, p. 61.
40. Sarah Lucia Hoagland, "Some Thoughts about "Caring," in Claudia Card, ed., Feminist Ethics. (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1991), p. 247.
41. Bernard Williams, Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy (London: Fontana, 1993), pp. 183-184.
42. The subhead at the top of this section is a direct reference to Williams's excellent book Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy, note 36.
43. Walker, note 2, p. 145.
44. Ibid., p. 144.
45. Tronto, note 27, pp. 170-171.
46. Friedman, note 29, pp. 87-88.
47. Jaggar, note 3, p. 197.
48. Nel Noddings, "The Alleged Parochialism of Caring," American Philosophical Association Newsletter on Feminism and Philosophy 90, no. 2 (winter 1991): 97-98.
49. Held, note 31, p. 59.
50. Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990), p. 18.
51. The Consequences of Modernity Ibid., p. 1.
52. Seyla Benhabib, "Cultural Complexity, Moral Interdependence, and the Global Dialogical Community," in Martha Nussbaum and Jonathan Glover, eds., Women, Culture and Development: A Study of Human Capabilities (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).
53. Tronto, note 27, p. 57.
54. Diana T. Meyers, Subjection and Subjectivity: Psychoanalytic Feminism and Moral Philosophy (London: Routledge, 1994), p. 3.
55. Jaggar, note 3, pp. 196-197.
56. Martha Minow, Making All the Difference: Inclusion, Exclusion and American Law (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990), p. 217.
57. Making All the Difference: Inclusion, Exclusion and American Law Ibid., p. 198 (emphasis added).
58. On this see Minow, note 51. Although it is not possible to explore this argument further in this article, I would claim that it is crucial to the construction of an expanded, global account of the relational ethics of care. In her study of legal reasoning and ethics in the United States, Minow argues that it is within relationships that we become who we are and make order out of our lives. She also points out, however, that the social and legal constructions of difference at work today have the effect of hiding from view these relationships, which are marked by power and hierarchy. Minow argues that a "social relations" approach to difference and exclusion can provide us with clues to broader problems of social policy and human responsibility. See Minow, pp. 21-22.
59. Walker, note 2, p. 147 (emphasis added).
60. Ibid., p. 145.
61. Ibid., p. 147.
62. Ian Shapiro, The Evolution of Rights in Liberal Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 304.
63. Williams, note 36, p. 117.
64. Gilligan, note 26, p. xix.
65. Minow, note 51, p. 213.